byzantine travel

Byzantine Empire

• 1 Understand
• 2.3 North Macedonia
• 2.4 Bulgaria
• 2.5 Romania

The Byzantine Empire or the Eastern Roman Empire is posterity's name for the eastern continuation of the Roman Empire , ruled from Constantinople (today's Istanbul ) until the city fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1453.

Understand [ edit ]

In 330, the Roman emperor Constantine I moved his seat east to Byzantium, renaming it Kōnstantinoupolis , "Constantine's city". In 395, Theodosius I officially divided the empire into two between his sons: the Western Roman Empire based in Rome and the Eastern Roman Empire with its seat in Constantinople.

At its time, the Byzantine Empire was known as the East Roman Empire or Romania , a name surviving in today's Romania , and the inhabitants never saw themselves anything other than Romans proper — the term "Byzantine" (derived from Byzantium, the oldest name of Constantinople/Istanbul) was coined after the fall of the empire, in 1557, by German scholar Hieronymus Wolf to distinguish the mainly urban, Greek-speaking, and Eastern Orthodox empire from its less urban, Latin-speaking, and Roman Catholic counterpart in the west.

The Byzantine Empire is one of few political entities in Europe to have survived for more than a thousand years, throughout the period known as the European Middle Ages , and its legacy is still visible in today's Balkans , Greece and Turkey . Prejudices about the Byzantine Empire (cf. the adjective "byzantine" negatively describing a bureaucracy, or the "Byzantine generals problems" in information science, alluding to the frequent treason in the armed forces) would have one believe that it was a hopelessly corrupt, terminally declining polity, but the fact that it held on to as much territory as it did for a millennium, adeptly navigating a world of numerous would-be destroyers of the empire, without the possibility of relying on overwhelmingly crushing military supremacy as the old Western Roman Empire could, shows a fascinatingly advanced and complex society.

Being the foremost Christian empire of its day, religion played a large part in Byzantine history; often domestic conflicts were clad in different interpretations of Christianity, and to this day some schisms dating to Byzantine era conflicts remain. Later on, the Byzantine Empire would see itself as the "last bastion" of Christendom against the Islamic expansion in the east , but adept Byzantine diplomacy made alliances with Christian, Muslim and even pagan rulers, for example Vladimir, ruler of Kievan Rus — the earliest iteration of the Russian Empire — who converted to Christianity, married Anna Porphyrogenita, sister of emperor Basil II Bulgaroktonos (the Bulgar-Slayer), came back to his capital and officially baptized his subjects in the Orthodox Christian faith by the Dnieper River in 988. After the end of the empire, prince Ivan III "the Great" of the Rurikid dynasty and princess Sophia Palaiologina of the last Byzantine dynasty were married on 12 November 1472. Their grandson Ivan IV "the Terrible" was the first prince of Muscovy to style himself "Tsar", aka "Caesar", and would lay Moscow 's claim of "the third Rome that shall not fall".

The Eastern Empire conquered large parts of the former West - most prominently the Exarchates of Ravenna and Africa - under Emperor Justinian with his able general Belisarius. However, his dynasty was the last whose primary language was Latin; Maurice, Phocas, the Heracliads and all subsequent dynasties were Greek speakers, calling themselves not "Augustus" but Βασιλεύς "Basileus" — following the establishment of the rival Holy Roman Empire in Western Europe in 800, the use of the title Αὐτοκράτωρ "Autokrator" became prevalent. The Pope justified his crowning of Charlemagne as "emperor" (of which there was supposed to be only one) by the fact that at the time the Eastern Roman Empire was governed by a woman and according to the sexist mores of the time, a woman could not possibly be emperor (the official biography of Charlemagne, written by his courtier Einhard claims that the crowning came as a surprise to Charlemagne and he did not want it, but had to accept it). At this time, the empire was already engaged in a long struggle against the expansion of Islam and sometimes even against other Europeans, particularly the Roman Catholics, as the Byzantine Empire became Eastern Orthodox following the schism between the East and West in 1054.

From the conclusion of the reign of Justinian in the 6th century until the beginning of the 13th century, the empire went through alternating periods of military or economic success and decline, varying from dynasty to dynasty. Following the August 636 Battle of Yarmouk, a decisive Muslim victory that ended Byzantine rule in the Levant, it spent the next few hundred years holding onto its possessions in present-day Greece and Asia Minor until the 1071 Battle of Manzikert, which opened Asia Minor to Turkish invasion and a new Crusader influence from the West, and furthered the decline in the empire's sphere of influence.

The biggest calamity to befall the empire before its ultimate fall was not at the hand of any "heathen", but the Christian crusaders of the 1204 Fourth Crusade, led by the greedy Venetian merchants who owned the boats. As a result, the Byzantine Empire temporarily lost control of Constantinople to the Latin Empire, a puppet of Venice (Doge Enrico Dandolo was buried inside Hagia Sophia; his tombstone can still be seen), which would've spelled the end of any lesser polity. However, the empire recovered and reconquered its capital in 1261. It soldiered on and called itself "Roman" until 29 May 1453, when Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks after a 53-day siege and the last emperor was killed in action, last seen fighting the attackers after he had removed all rank insignia to die as a Roman.

Destinations [ edit ]

Turkey [ edit ]

• 41.0086 28.9802 1 Constantinople ( Byzantium ), Istanbul . A part of the Roman Empire from 73 AD, it was besieged and reconstructed by Septimius Severus (no one would dream of surrendering this supremely strategic site). In the 4th century, it was reconstructed by Constantine the Great as his Nova Roma, a status the city mantained for more than a millenium. The Hagia Sophia former cathedral, now a mosque, the adjacent Hippodrome square, Hagia Eirene and the Archaeology Museum inside Topkapi Palace, the Valens Aqueduct and the Theodosian Walls are must-see here. These streets are not short of surviving Byzantine antiquities. ( updated Sep 2015 )
• 40.7667 29.9167 3 Izmit ( Nicomedia ) ( Eastern Marmara ). Founded by Nicomedes I of Bithynia in 264 BC. It has ever since been one of the most important cities in northwestern Asia Minor. Diocletian made it the eastern capital city of the Roman Empire in 286 when he introduced the Tetrarchy system. Nicomedia remained as the eastern (and most senior) capital of the Roman Empire until Licinius was defeated by Constantine the Great in 324. Constantine mainly resided in Nicomedia as his interim capital city for the next six years, as he rebuilt nearby Byzantium as Nova Roma; he moved there in 330. Historical monuments in Izmit include the remains of the ancient walls of Nicomedia and a Byzantine fortress. ( updated Sep 2015 )

• 40.429 29.7195 4 Iznik ( Nicaea, Nikaia ) ( Eastern Marmara ). Site of the First and Second Councils of Nicaea, the first and seventh Ecumenical councils in the early history of the Christian Church. Nicaea's Roman and Byzantine city walls, 4,426 m (14,521 ft) in circumference, remain almost entirely intact around the city. The 4th-century St. Sophia Cathedral, site of the Second Council of Nicaea, still extant as well, has been converted into a mosque. The town was the capital (along with Kemalpaşa, see below) of the Empire of Nicaea, the rump Byzantine polity existed during the 1204–61 Latin occupation of Constantinople. ( updated Sep 2015 )
• 37.939139 27.34075 6 Ephesus ( Central Aegean ). The capital of Asia Proconsularis province, now a large world heritage-listed archeological site and one of Turkey's major tourist attractions. Mary the mother of Jesus and St. John the Apostle are said to have lived and died here; the ruins of St John's basilica, built upon his tomb on orders of emperor Justinian, and razed by Tamerlane's troops in the 14th century, are particularly moving. ( updated Sep 2015 )
• 38.35 28.516667 7 Alaşehir ( Philadelphia ) ( Central Aegean ). A prosperous Byzantine city, called the "little Athens" in the 6th century AD because of its festivals and temples. In about the year 600 the domed Basilica of St. John was built, remains of which are the main archaeological attraction in the modern city. Philadelphia was the last Byzantine city in the interior of Asia Minor to be captured by the Ottomans, in 1390. ( updated Jan 2021 )
• 38.419 27.139 8 Izmir ( Smyrna ) ( Central Aegean ). Always famous as the birthplace of Homer, thought to have lived here around the 8th century BC. Its central market place from Roman times is now an open-air museum. ( updated Sep 2015 )
• 37.9205 29.121 10 Pamukkale ( Hierapolis ) ( Southern Aegean ). Home to the Martyrium of St. Phillip, a pilgrimage site that is supposedly the site where the apostle Philip was martyred and buried. The church at the site is in ruins, but its foundations reveal an unusual octagonal plan. Together with the unbelievable hot springs on calcium-coated cliffs and pools of Pamukkale, used as a spa since the 2nd century BC and literally a few steps away, a UNESCO World Heritage site . ( updated Jan 2021 )
• 39.9465 32.853 11 Ankara ( Ancyra ) ( Central Anatolia ). Former capital city of the Galatia Roman province. Emperor Julian "the Apostate" visited in 362, and a commemorative column is still standing at Julian Sütunu (Julian's Square). The Ankara Citadel's present walls are Byzantine, commonly held to date from the 620s and the reign of Heraclius. There are also the Temple of Augustus and Rome, a bathing complex thoroughly excavated, and a theater. ( updated Aug 2015 )
• 42.0333 35.15 12 Sinop ( Sinope ) ( Western Karadeniz ). The birthplace of king Mithradates VI Eupator of Pontus and seminal philosopher Diogenes the Cynic. Its historic fortress, started in the 7th century BC by colonists from Miletus, was extended and repaired several times in its history by the Persians, the kingdom of Pontus, the Romans, the Byzantines and the Genoese. The Archaeology Museum's open-air section features the tomb of a Seljuk princess and ruins of a Serapeum, a temple dedicated to the combined Hellenistic-Ancient Egyptian deity Serapis, unearthed onsite, during excavations in 1951. ( updated Oct 2015 )

• 41 39.733333 13 Trabzon ( Trapezus, Trebizond ) ( Eastern Karadeniz ). An important Imperial trade hub in the Black Sea. After a Turkmen attack on the city was repelled by a local force in the 1080s, the city broke relations with the empire and became an independent state, the Empire of Trebizond ruled by the Komnenos family, which also provided several emperors to the Byzantine throne. The longest surviving rump Byzantine state, the empire of Trebizond was captured by the Ottoman Turks in 1461, almost a decade after the fall of Constantinople. Most of the city's defense walls and a few towers remain standing, showing sections of Roman, Byzantine, Trebizond and Ottoman stonework. ( updated Oct 2015 )
• 40.916 38.392 14 Giresun ( Kerasos ) ( Eastern Karadeniz ). As this colony of Miletus was the first harbour to export cherries to Europe, during Roman times, the city and the fruit are homonymous in Latin ( cerasus ), originating the fruit's name in most later languages. It was ruled by the Miletians, Persians, Pontics, Romans, Byzantines and Empire of Trebizond. The older parts of the city lie on a peninsula crowned by a ruined Byzantine fortress, sheltering the small natural harbour. ( updated Jan 2021 )
• 38.488333 28.040278 15 Sardis ( Central Aegean ). Founded by native, pre-Roman Lydians, and famously associated with King Croesus, Sardis was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Lydia, one of the important cities of the Achaemenid Persian Empire , the seat of a Seleucid Satrap, the seat of a proconsul under the Roman Empire, and the metropolis of the province Lydia in later Roman and Byzantine times. It features the ruins of a Roman-era synagogue, one of the oldest in the Jewish diaspora. When the Turkish government allowed for excavations in 1910, several Byzantine-style churches were discovered, including the so-called "Original Basilica" which may have been built in the middle of the 4th century AD, nearly a century before the first Christian building of its kind was erected in Constantinople. ( updated Nov 2015 )

• 36.766667 31.388889 16 Side ( Pamphylia ). Possessing a good harbour for small-craft boats, it was one of the most important places in Pamphylia and one of the most important trade centres in the region. Arab fleets, nevertheless, raided and burned Side during the 7th century, contributing to its decline. The combination of earthquakes, Christian zealots and Arab raids, left the site abandoned by the 10th century, its citizens having emigrated to nearby Attalia . The great ruins are among the most notable in Asia Minor and include the largest theatre in Pamphylia, a temple to Apollo, and a gate, in fairly good condition. ( updated Sep 2015 )
• 36.376111 33.932222 17 Silifke ( Seleukeia, Cilician Seleucia, Seleucia ad Calycadnum ) ( Cilician Mountains ). Its center is home to an intact Roman bridge, and the ruins of a Roman temple dedicated to Jupiter. There are also the prominent remains of the castle high on a rock above the town, the city walls, a large water tank (Tekir ambarı) cut into the rock, an extensive necropolis of rock-cut tombs with inscriptions and an archeological museum. Seleucia was famous for the tomb of the virgin Saint Thekla of Iconium, converted by Saint Paul. She died at Seleucia, and her tomb was one of the most celebrated in the Christian world, restored several times, among others by the Emperor Zeno in the 5th century, and today the ruins of the tomb and sanctuary are called Meriamlik. ( updated Oct 2015 )
• 37.1667 38.8 18 Urfa ( Edessa ) ( Southeastern Anatolia ). Supposed to originally be Ur , the birthplace of Biblical patriarch Abraham. Its location on the eastern frontier of the empire meant it was frequently conquered during periods when the Byzantine central government was weak, and for centuries, it was alternately conquered by Arab, Byzantine, Armenian and Turkish rulers. There is an ancient ruined castle with some Roman columns that remain. ( updated Oct 2015 )

• 36.2 36.15 19 Antakya ( Antiocheia, Syrian Antioch, Antioch ad Orontes ) ( Hatay ). After the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC , Seleucus I Nicator won the territory of Syria. He proceeded to found four "sister cities" in northwestern Syria, one of which was Antioch, a city named in honor of his father Antiochus. The former capital of the Hellenistic Seleucid Kingdom, and of Syria Palaestina province in the Roman and Byzantine empires, is famous as an important centre of early Christianity, with some of the first non-hidden churches and the seat of a patriarchate on equal terms with the Jerusalem, Alexandria and Constantinople ones, an autocephalous Greek Orthodox Church to this day. The city swapped hands between the Byzantines and the Persian Sassanids in the 3rd century, and was the battleground for the siege of Antioch where Shapur I defeated the Roman army, and a later Battle of Antioch (613) where the Persians were successful at capturing the city for the last time. Heraclius retook it later. ( updated Sep 2015 )

Greece [ edit ]

North Macedonia [ edit ]

Bulgaria [ edit ].

• 42.65 27.7333 28 Nesebar ( Mesembria ) ( Bulgarian Black Sea Coast ). Originally a Greek colony on a former island, which has sunk under water. However, some remains from the Hellenistic period are extant. These include the acropolis, a temple of Apollo, a market place, and a fortification wall, which can still be seen on the north side of the peninsula. During the final two decades of the empire, Nesebar and nearby Burgas ( Pyrgos ) were the only significant communities alongside the imperial capital that stayed in Byzantine hands till the very end, the Fall of Constantinople. ( updated Oct 2015 )
• 42.4167 27.7 29 Sozopol ( Apollonia Pontica - that is, "Apollonia on the Black Sea", the ancient Pontus Euxinus - and Apollonia Magna, "Great Apollonia" ) ( Bulgarian Black Sea Coast ). A part of the ancient seaside fortifications, including a gate, have been preserved, along with an amphitheater. ( updated Oct 2015 )
• 42.15 24.75 30 Plovdiv ( Philippopolis, Trimontium ) ( Upper Thracian Plain ). Historic capital of Thracia. Several ruins can be seen in or near the downtown area, including an aqueduct and a very well preserved theater. ( updated Sep 2015 )
• 43.2167 27.9167 31 Varna ( Odessus ) ( Bulgarian Black Sea Coast ). Home to the remains of a large bathing complex, and an archeological museum. ( updated Aug 2015 )

Romania [ edit ]

• 44.172997 28.658287 32 Constanța ( Tomis ) ( Northern Dobruja ). Originally a Greek colony. ( updated Aug 2015 )
• 43.817222 28.582778 33 Mangalia ( Callatis ) ( Northern Dobruja ). Started to exist as a Greek colony in the 6th century BC. Today, it's a rich archeological site, with ruins of the original Callatis citadel and an archeological museum. ( updated Oct 2015 )

Crimea [ edit ]

• 44.61054 33.48899 34 Cherson ( Chersonesus Taurica; "Taurica" stands for the Crimean Peninsula ) ( Sevastopol , about 3 km from the city centre ). Founded by settlers from Heraclea Pontica in Bithynia in the 6th century BC. Justinian II, after being deposed and having his nose cut off, was sent to exile here (he would return in triumph to the throne, with a golden prosthetic nose). It's also the site where Vladimir the Great, aka St. Vladimir of Kiev, the first leader of the Kievan Rus to convert to Christianity, was baptised. Here are various Byzantine basilicas, including a famous one with marble columns. It's listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site .  

Italy [ edit ]

• 44.425 12.2092 37 Ravenna ( Emilia-Romagna ). Capital city of the Western Roman Empire from 402 until its collapse in 476, and later retaken by emperor Justinian I with his right-hand man, general Belisarius. Famous for its 6th-century churches with exceptional and very well-preserved Byzantine mosaics. ( updated Sep 2015 )

Africa [ edit ]

• 36.858056 10.330833 41 Carthage ( 15 km north of Tunis ). The capital of the Exarchate of Africa, one of two exarchates established following the western reconquests under emperor Justinian. A UNESCO World Heritage List site. ( updated Sep 2015 )
• 31.182494 29.896453 42 Alexandria ( Lower Egypt ). Capital of Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine Egypt for almost 1,000 years, the second most powerful city of the ancient world. ( updated Sep 2015 )

Levant [ edit ]

• 33.5167 36.3 43 Damascus . Considered by some to be the oldest continually inhabited city in the world, Damascus belonged to the empire until 634. The Great Umayyad Mosque started out as a local deity's shrine rebuilt as a Roman temple of Jupiter, which became a church dedicated to St. John the Baptist housing his relics (to this day, they're still there, inside a gilded marble shrine of obviously Byzantine craftsmanship). Its overhaul into the monumental Umayyad mosque, from 706 to 715, is reported to have employed 200 skilled Byzantine decoration craftsmen, architects, stonemasons and mosaicists, sent by emperor Justinian II at the personal request of Umayyad caliph al-Walid.  
• 31.778444 35.22975 44 Jerusalem/Old City . The holy city was an imperial possession until 614, when it fell to Sassanid Persia. It was retaken by emperor Heraclius in 629. He famously entered barefoot through the present walled-up eastern gate of the Temple Mount, aka the Golden Gate , built for this occasion, to restore the True Cross to the Holy Sepulchre church in a majestic ceremony, on 21 March 630. Jerusalem was conquered by the Arab armies of Umar ibn al-Khattab in 638. ( updated Aug 2015 )

See also [ edit ]

• Ancient Greece
• Roman Empire
• Christianity
• Islamic Golden Age
• Medieval Europe
• Vikings and the Old Norse

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World history

Course: world history   >   unit 3.

• Justinian and the Byzantine Empire
• Comparing Roman and Byzantine Empires
• Guided practice: continuity and change in the Byzantine Empire

Byzantine culture and society

• Key concepts: the Byzantine Empire
• Focus on continuity and change: Byzantine state-building
• Constantinople was the center of Byzantine trade and culture and was incredibly diverse.
• The Byzantine Empire had an important cultural legacy, both on the Orthodox Church and on the revival of Greek and Roman studies, which influenced the Renaissance.
• The East-West Schism in 1054 divided the Christian world into the Orthodox Church—now the Eastern Orthodox Church—the Catholic Church—now the Roman Catholic Church.

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A Trip through Byzantine Greece

Alexandria Sivak | April 7, 2014 | 3 min read

Armchair-travel to three sites rich in the history, art, and architecture of the Byzantine Empire

The city of Kastoria, Greece. Photo courtesy of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports

Miles of pristine coastlines, ancient ruins around every corner, friendly people, and fantastic scenery—there’s much to love about Greece. One of the world’s most popular tourist destinations, it’s also a living museum of art and architecture. Byzantine treasures from cities around Greece can be seen at the Getty Villa in the exhibition Heaven and Earth: Art of Byzantium from Greek Collections , on view April 9–August 25.

One of the best ways to explore the icons, textiles, architectural sculptures, frescoes, and mosaics in the exhibition is to understand the sites where these treasures originally resided, and how they were used. These locations represent the intersection of Eastern and Western religion, politics, and customs that yielded Byzantine artistic triumphs.

Icon with the Virgin and Child , Greek, fourth quarter of the 12th century. Egg tempera on wood with gold leaf, 45 1/4 x 30 1/2 x 3 in. Image courtesy of the Byzantine Museum, Kastoria, no. 457

The city of Kastoria is an astoundingly intact time capsule of the Byzantine Empire. This small city lies in the breathtaking countryside of western Macedonia and is protected on three sides by Lake Kastoria, so its Byzantine churches and frescoes have been well preserved. Kastoria was linked to key Byzantine cities like Constantinople by major medieval roads like the Via Egnatia, and its art benefited from the exchange of ideas and techniques along that busy road.

A particular gem lies on the city’s northwest side, where visitors come across the Church of the Hagioi Anargyroi. Dating back to the tenth and eleventh century, the church holds some of the city’s earliest art treasures. A lifelike portrait of emperor Constantine hangs in this church, which was built and decorated with support from the city’s wealthy residents.

One of the most significant objects in the Getty Villa exhibition is a two-sided icon from another don’t-miss spot, the Byzantine Museum of Kastoria. One side shows Christ laid out for burial in an image that combines themes of the Crucifixion, the Lamentation, and the Entombment. The reverse shows the grief-stricken Virgin Hodegetria (an iconographic depiction of the Virgin Mary) as she gestures towards the Christ child, indicating his role as mankind’s path to salvation. In the Byzantine era, icons such as this one were carried in procession on Good Friday.

Mosaic with a Fountain, Greek, mid-5th century. Gold and glass tesserae, 75 x 29 1/4 x 1 1/4 in. Image courtesy of the Museum of Byzantine Culture, Thessaloniki

Thessaloniki

Continuing our tour, we reach Thessaloniki in northern Greece, which was considered the “second capital” of the Byzantine Empire after Constantinople. While it was a powerful port city with a thriving economy, its exposed location made it vulnerable to incursions of Muslims and Western crusaders.

The city has at least 18 existing Byzantine monuments open to the public, but these remaining monuments are a small portion of the city’s onetime architectural wealth. Many of its Byzantine churches and monasteries survived as mosques during Ottoman rule and have been restored within the last century to their Christian contexts.

The city houses some of the finest assemblages of mosaics from the fourth through sixth centuries A.D. Heaven and Earth features a mosaic fragment from the Church of the Acheiropoietos, the oldest surviving church in Thessaloniki. The mosaics’ brightly colored vegetal, animal, and geometric motifs appear to float against a gold background, giving the impression of a heavenly environment.

The city of Mistra, Greece. Photo courtesy of the Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Sports

Mistra is known as a “city of ruins.” Located in the foothills of Mount Taygetus in the Peloponnese, this heavily fortified site was ceded to the Byzantines in 1262 and quickly developed into a dynamic urban center with intense intellectual and artistic activity. Some of the most important examples of residential architecture of the late Byzantine period are preserved in Mistra.

Two of the city’s most prominent Byzantine churches, the Metropolis and Hagioi Theodoroi, also represent the site’s diversity of architectural design. The Metropolis follows a classic basilica type found in churches in Sparta—which Mistra overlooks—while Hagioi Theodoroi follows a domed octagon design similar to Hagia Sophia in Monemvasia.

Relief with Christ Pantokrator , a marble and wax proskynetarion excavated from the Church of the Peribleptos at Mistra, is featured in the exhibition. Protective in function and monumental in size, proskynetaria were built into city walls or placed in public spaces and churches where they were available for public veneration. Christ Pantokrator (meaning Almighty or All-Ruler) sits on an elaborate throne under an arch, holding a closed book and making a gesture of blessing.

It’s a beautiful image that—like many objects in the show—causes me to wonder how majestic it once looked in its original context.

The exhibition Heaven and Earth: Art of Byzantium from Greek Collections includes loans from a remarkable 34 museums across Greece, collectively painting a rich portrait of the Byzantine art and culture that still enriches Greece’s landscape today. To explore beautiful buildings and landscapes from the places I’ve mentioned here as well as three more—Athens, Philippi, and Thessalian Thebes—see the videos embedded below. And to visit the exhibition, book a ticket to the Getty Villa here . Admission to the Villa and to the exhibition is free.

• ancient Greece
• Byzantine art
• exhibitions

About The Author

Alexandria sivak.

I'm senior communications specialist at the J. Paul Getty Trust, and handle media outreach for the Getty Conservation Institute, Getty Foundation, and the Getty Museum's Department of Photographs.

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So beautiful, from the Historical, Cultural, Artistic point of view, and, so little….is known about it.

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10 Things You May Not Know About the Byzantine Empire

By: Evan Andrews

Updated: August 21, 2023 | Original: June 2, 2016

1. It wasn’t called the Byzantine Empire until after it fell.

The term “Byzantine Empire” came into common use during the 18th and 19th centuries, but it would’ve been completely alien to the Empire’s ancient inhabitants. For them, Byzantium was a continuation of the Roman Empire, which had merely moved its seat of power from Rome to a new eastern capital in Constantinople.

Though largely Greek-speaking and Christian, the Byzantines called themselves “Romaioi,” or Romans, and they still subscribed to Roman law and reveled in Roman culture and games. While Byzantium later developed a distinctive, Greek-influenced identity as the centuries wore on, it continued to cherish its Roman roots until its fall. Upon conquering Constantinople in 1453, the Turkish leader Mehmed II even claimed the title “Caesar of Rome.”

2. Constantinople was purpose-built to serve as an imperial capital.

The early origins of the Byzantine Empire date to 324, when Emperor Constantine abandoned the decaying city of Rome and moved his court to Byzantium, an ancient port town strategically located on the Bosporus strait separating Europe and Asia. In the span of just six years, Constantine converted the sleepy Greek colony into a metropolis complete with forums, public buildings, universities and defensive walls. He even had ancient Roman monuments and statues brought in to cement its status as a world capital. Constantine dedicated the city in 330 as “Nova Roma,” or “New Rome,” but it soon became known as “Constantinople” after its creator.

3. Its most influential emperor came from humble origins.

Byzantium’s rise corresponded with the unlikely reign of Justinian I. Born around 482 in the Balkans, he spent his youth as a peasant’s son before being taken under the wing of his uncle Justin I, a former swineherd and soldier who later became the Byzantine Emperor. Justinian succeeded Justin in 527, and while he always spoke Greek with a bad accent—a sign of his provincial origins—he proved to be a natural ruler.

During nearly 40 years on the throne, he recaptured huge swaths of lost Roman territory and launched ambitious construction projects including rebuilding Constantinople’s Hagia Sophia, a domed church now considered one of history’s great architectural achievements. Perhaps most important of all, Justinian was responsible for compiling Roman law into the Corpus Juris Civilis, a compendium of jurisprudence that forms the bedrock of many modern legal systems.

4. A riot by chariot-racing hooligans nearly brought the Empire to its knees.

Just as modern sports franchises have diehard fans, Byzantine chariot racing had the Blues and the Greens, a pair of fanatical—and often violent—supporters’ groups named for the colors worn by their favorite teams. These ancient hooligans were sworn enemies, but in 532, discontent over taxation and the attempted execution of two of their leaders saw them band together in a bloody insurrection known as the Nika Riots. For several days, the Blues and Greens ran amok through Constantinople burning buildings and even trying to crown a new ruler.

The Emperor Justinian nearly fled the capital but was dissuaded by his wife, Theodora, who convinced him that it was nobler to fight for his crown. Bolstered by her words, Justinian had his guards block the exits to the city’s Hippodrome—which the rioters were using as their headquarters—and then ambushed it with a host of mercenary troops. The result was a wholesale slaughter. By the time the battle ended, the riot was crushed and an estimated 30,000 people were dead—as much as 10 percent of Constantinople’s entire population.

5. Byzantine rulers were known to blind and mutilate their rivals.

Byzantine politicians often avoided killing their rivals in favor of carrying out ghastly acts of physical mutilation. Many would-be usurpers and deposed emperors were blinded or castrated to prevent them from leading troops or fathering children, while others had their tongues, noses or lips cut off. Maiming was supposed to prevent victims from challenging for power—disfigured people were traditionally barred from imperial rule—but it didn’t always work as planned. The Emperor Justinian II famously had his nose hacked off when he was overthrown in 695, but returned from exile 10 years later and reclaimed the throne—supposedly while sporting a prosthetic golden nose.

6. Its military used an early version of napalm.

Byzantium owed much of its military success to Greek Fire, a mysterious incendiary liquid that was used to set enemy troops and ships ablaze. The precise recipe for this ancient napalm has been lost to history—it might have contained everything from petroleum and pine resin to sulfur and saltpeter—but accounts describe it as a thick, sticky substance that could be sprayed from siphons or hurled in clay pots like grenades. Once ignited, it could not be extinguished with water and could even burn on the surface of the sea. Greek Fire was most famously associated with the Byzantine navy, who used it to devastating effect against Arab and Russian invaders during sieges of Constantinople in the seventh, eighth and tenth centuries.

7. The Empire gave rise to the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Byzantium was almost always a Christian empire, but over the centuries its Greek-speaking church developed distinct liturgical differences from the Catholic, Latin-speaking church in the West. The theological tensions finally boiled over in 1054, when a falling out between the patriarch of Constantinople and a papal delegate led the Eastern and Western churches to issue decrees excommunicating one another.

This “Great Schism” created two separate branches of Christianity: the Roman Catholic Church in the West, and the Eastern Orthodox Church in the Byzantine East. The two churches eventually repealed their excommunication orders in the 1960s following a historic meeting between the Catholic Pope Paul VI and the Orthodox Patriarch Athenagoras I, but they remain separate entities to this day.

8. Its capital was sacked during the Crusades.

One of the darkest chapters in Byzantine history began in the early 13th century when Christian warriors assembled in Venice for the Fourth Crusade . The Crusaders were supposed to sail for the Middle East to seize Jerusalem from the Muslim Turks, but due to cash shortages and friction with the Orthodox Byzantines, they were persuaded to make a detour to Constantinople to restore a deposed Emperor to the throne.

After a deal to fund their expedition to the Holy Lands fell through in 1204, the Crusaders carried out a bloody sack of Constantinople, burning the city and carting off much of its treasure, art and religious relics. They also carved up much of the declining Byzantine Empire and installed a Latin ruler. While the Byzantines later recaptured Constantinople in 1261, the Empire would never regain its former glory.

9. The invention of the cannon helped bring about the Empire’s fall.

Constantinople’s towering city walls kept invading Goths, Persians, Russians and Arabs at bay for centuries, but they proved to be no match for changing military technology. In the spring of 1453, having already conquered most of the Byzantine frontier, Ottoman Turks under Sultan Mehmed II laid siege to the capital with a collection of cannons specially designed by a Hungarian engineer. At the center of the arsenal was a 27-foot gun so heavy that a team of 60 oxen was required to transport it.

After bombarding Constantinople’s defenses for several weeks, the Ottomans blasted a breach in the walls on May 29, allowing scores of Islamic soldiers to pour into the city and put its inhabitants to the sword. Among the many killed was the last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI, who supposedly stripped off his royal regalia and cried out “the city is lost, but I live!” before charging into battle. With the fall of its once-mighty capital, the Byzantine Empire crumbled after more than 1,100 years in existence.

10. The Byzantines preserved many of the writings of Ancient Greece.

The writings of Greek thinkers such as Plato, Ptolemy and Galen might have been lost to history if not for the Byzantine Empire. Though often hostile toward so-called “pagan” ideas, Byzantine scribes judiciously copied the decaying manuscripts of the ancients, and Constantinople’s libraries safeguarded Greek and Roman texts that were slowly vanishing in the West. It has been estimated that of all the ancient Greek manuscripts that survive today, more than two-thirds were handed down by the Byzantines.

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Byzantine Empire, a thousand years of history

• February 5, 2020
• By Vaggelis Kourelis

The ancient city of Byzantium

Byzantium or Byzantion was an ancient Greek colony founded in 667 BC by Dorian colonists who came from Megara, a city-state near Athens. The city of Byzantium, nowadays the Turkish city of Istanbul, took the name from the founder and leader of the expedition Byzas, son of Megara’s’ King Nisos. Byzas, upon sailing with his ships at the Golden Horn, found a great natural harbor where the Bosporus flows into the Sea of Marmara. He immediately recognized the advantages and the great strategic importance of this harbor, located on the European side of the Bosporus   straits . The city he established many centuries later renamed Constantinople (330 AD) meant to become the capital of one of the most powerful empires in world history, the Byzantine Empire.

The genesis of a Medieval Hellenistic Empire

In the year 330 AD, the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great takes the decision to move the capital of the Roman Empire to this strategically important location of Bosporus, the city of Byzantium. The newly established imperial capital of the Roman world took the name Constantinople , known also as the “New Rome”. In the Greek language, the name “Constantinople” translates to “the city of Constantine”. The combination of Roman imperialism and location would affect Constantinople’s role as the nexus between the continents of Europe and Asia. It was a commercial, cultural, and diplomatic center of the Christian world for over 10 centuries.

With its strategic position, Constantinople controlled the major trade routes between Asia and Europe, as well as the passage from the Mediterranean Sea to the Black Sea. The new Roman capital was located much closer to the most vibrant and important population centers of the Empire, the Eastern provinces. Τhis allowed for a far better administration and swift military responses to any hostile incursions. The centuries-old dominant Greek language and the Hellenistic culture of the Eastern provinces allowed for a far stronger sense of unity between the various populations living in this Eastern part of the empire.

The Dark Ages and the Eastern Roman Empire

I n the year 395 AD the Roman Empire was divided into the Western and the Eastern Roman Empires . Less than a century later, Rome fell to the invading Germanic tribes and the Western Roman Empire collapsed with it in 476 AD. For many, this marks the beginning of the Dark Ages in Europe. While the West plunges into a dark period of violence and unrest, in the East, the Eastern Roman Empire proved much more resilient and adaptive, managing to survive for another 10 centuries. Varied in size over the centuries, at one time or another, possessing territories located in Italy, Greece, the Balkans, Levant, Asia Minor, and North Africa.

An Orthodox Christian state with Greek as the official language, the Byzantines developed their own political systems, religious practices, art, and architecture, although significantly influenced by the Greco-Roman cultural tradition. The Byzantine Empire was the longest-lasting medieval power, and its influence continues today, especially in the religion, art, architecture, and law of many Western states, Eastern and Central Europe, and Russia.

The term “Byzantine Empire” or Byzantium which is used today to describe the Eastern Roman Empire was not used by the people of that period. For them, they were simply Roman citizens up until the very end and the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453 AD. The name Byzantium was adopted by modern Scholars much later to distinguish the ancient Roman Empire from the Eastern Roman Empire of the Middle Ages. And to do this they used the term Byzantion, the name of the ancient Greek colony existing before Constantinople was established as the new Roman capital.

Defending Europe in the East from Islam’s expansion

Europe in the west borders to the Atlantic Ocean, so there was no real threat from that direction. The only invasion from an outside force Western Europe had to face during the upheaval of the Dark Ages was the Arabic conquest of Spain. The Arab advance from North Africa to Spain was eventually stopped by the Frankish forces under Charles Martel in West-central France with the battle of Tours or the battle of Poitiers (10 October 732) . From this point on there was no other real threat Europe to face from that same direction.

That wasn’t the case for the Eastern Roman Empire, bordering with the landmass of Eurasia in the East, various European and Slavic nations invading from the East, North and West the Empire had to fight constantly for survival! And with each different nation, the Byzantine Empire was forced to fight they had to adapt its tactics to their different styles of waging war.

Nonetheless, the Byzantine Empire for centuries had the best army, utilizing the best tactics and weapons and led by the best commanding officers in the whole region. Between the 7 th and 11 th centuries Byzantium was trying to repel the Islamic expansion in the East. And even though it suffered huge territorial losses, eventually was able to halt their advancements in North Syria and Anatolia.

During that same period, the focus of the Byzantine Empire shifted from the western reconquests of Justinian to a primarily defensive posture especially against the Islamic armies on its most eastern borders. Without the danger of Islam and without the Byzantine interference in the emerging Christian states of western Europe, this relatively stable situation gave a huge stimulus to feudalism and economic self-sufficiency, paving the way for Western Europe’s resurgence from the Dark Ages.

The beginning of the end

By the end of the 1oth century, Europe’s various states became strong enough to set their eyes for expansion in the only direction possible: towards the East. The Empire from this point on was forced to engage in a struggle for survival on two different fronts, East and West.  In 1204 AD the Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade were assembled by Pope Innocent III, instead of reaching the Holy Lands they occupy and plunder the city of Constantinople. It was the first conquest of the imperial capital by an invading army since its establishment in 330 AD.

This alone, allowed the crusaders to plunder an enormous amount of wealth the city had accumulated over the centuries. The sack of Constantinople was followed by the fragmentation of the Byzantine Empire into three rump states centered in Nicaea, Trebizond, and Epirus. Latin forces manage to hold Constantinople up until 1261, the year in which the “ Byzantine state of Nicaea ”, expelled the Crusaders regaining the Empire to some extent. The Fourth Crusade is considered to have solidified the East-West Schism of 1054, dealing an irrevocable blow to the already weakened Byzantine Empire. This paved the way in the coming centuries for the Islamic conquests in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) and the Balkans led by the Ottoman Turks.

The Byzantine monasteries of Meteora

It was during this dark period of the 14 th century when the first monks arrived at the area to establish the monasteries. Meteora at the time was under the rule of the Byzantine successor state of Epirus . To most people of that period, the demise of a thousand years old Empire seemed in their eyes as the pending end of their entire worldview. God was punishing them for becoming a degenerate state, filled with sinners who lived away from God’s will. For many of them, the last refuge they had was their Christian faith, to try to find God and to ask for forgiveness.

So, they decided to retreat away from this sinful world, in the deeply mystical life of the Eastern Orthodox monasteries . That’s why in the 14 th century we see a surge of Byzantine people following Orthodox monasticism by joining monasteries and by becoming monks. They created eventually what became known as the movement of Hesychasm . And by doing so, the monasteries they established all over Greece became a living ark, preserving and safekeeping to this day the Byzantine traditions. Meteora became one of the most ideal places for the monks of that period to find refuge on the high cliffs. To be able to live completely detached from this world, suspended between the heavens and the earth, was a unique experience, one could find only at Meteora!

In the year 1453 AD, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman army led by Mehmed II, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire. During the dark period following the Islamic conquest, the Byzantine monasteries became beacons of hope, support, and knowledge for the Christians of the Orthodox Church. The monks managed to preserve the cultural wealth of Byzantium in their daily rituals, the art, the literature, and the parchments of their libraries, in the architecture of their churches. The Byzantine heritage remains alive everywhere inside the Orthodox monasteries today. By visiting a monastery of Meteora it’s like having a window back in time, allowing you to glimpse what once was the Imperial grandeur of Byzantium.

And the Byzantine Empire eventually became the longest-lasting empire in world history!

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5 Breathtaking Byzantine Sites to Visit in Istanbul

Discover the rich cultural and architectural heritage of the byzantine empire in these 5 dazzling sites across istanbul, byzantium's former capital..

Harry Sherrin

16 nov 2022.

Also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire dominated Eastern Europe from approximately 395 AD to the 15th century. In 1453, Byzantium fell to Ottoman Turkish invaders.

But in its prime, the Byzantine Empire is thought to have had power over lands from Spain all the way to India. And the capital of this vast empire was in Constantinople, now known as Istanbul.

The Byzantine Empire’s rich cultural and architectural heritage is still preserved in dazzling sites across the city. From important museums to incredible architectural triumphs, here are 5 Byzantine sites to visit in Istanbul.

1. Hagia Sophia

One of many important Byzantine sites in Istanbul, the Hagia Sophia is a world famous 6th century church turned mosque. Whilst the original Hagia Sofia was built in the 4th century AD by Constantine the Great, very little remains of this structure nor the one built after it in the fifth century. The current building dates back to between 532 and 537 AD, during which time it was constructed under the order of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian.

Visitors can view remnants of the first two Hagias Sophias as well as touring the current building with its stunning mosaics and ornate Muslim altars and chapels. Outside, cannonballs used by Mehmet the Conqueror during his invasion of the city line the paths and there is an eighteenth century fountain for ritual ablutions. Hagia Sophia is a beautiful mixture of Muslim and Christian influences and architecture, including the Byzantine mosaics, which can only really be seen in the higher galleries for a further fee.

2. The Basilica Cistern

The Basilica Cistern is a subterranean wonder and one of the greatest – and certainly the biggest – of Istanbul’s surviving Byzantine sites. With its imposing columns, grand scale and mysterious ambience, this subterranean site seems like a flooded palace, but it is in fact a former water storage chamber. Built by Byzantine Emperor Justinian in around 532AD, the Basilica Cistern would have stored around 80,000 cubic metres of water at a time to supply the city of Byzantium.

Today, visitors can explore the site, treading its raised platforms to view its 336 beautiful marble columns, enjoy its vaulted ceilings and experience its eerie nature complete with dripping water. Amongst the highlights at the Basilica Cistern are two mysterious columns depicting the head of the mythological figure Medusa.

3. Istanbul Mosaic Museum

The Istanbul Mosaic Museum, located near Sultanahmet Square in Istanbul, contains the amazing remains of mosaics excavated from the courtyard of the Great Palace of Constantinople. First discovered in 1933 and later fully excavated in the 1950s, the mosaic floors were found under the modern Arasta Bazaar and now form the core of the Istanbul Mosaic Museum.

The Great Palace mosaics that make up the museum have been dated between 450 and 550 AD and depict scenes from daily life, hunting nature and mythology rather than religious figures. Visitors can walk around and above the excavated mosaics and read detailed information points which describe the content and history of each mosaic section.

4. St Savior in Chora

St Savior in Chora (Kariye Camii) is an 11th century church turned mosque and, more recently, a museum known as Kariye Muzesi (Chora Museum).

Originally built within a Christian complex outside the boundary of Constantinople’s walls, St Savior in Chora derived its name from its countryside setting, with ‘in chora’ meaning ‘rural’. However, the building of St Savior in Chora we see today is a newer incarnation, having been built in the 11th century and turned into a mosque in the 16th century.

Today, a highlight of visiting St Savior in Chora is its incredible set of Byzantine mosaics dating to the fourteenth century, when the church underwent redecoration. Hidden by plaster during its time as a mosque, these works now remain beautifully preserved.

5. Yedikule Zindanlari

Yedikule Zindanlari is an impressive Byzantine and medieval fort in Istanbul, one of several key Byzantine sites in the city. Originally part of the Theodosian Wall, built by Theodosius II in the fifth century, the fortress was added to over the centuries, including by Mehmet the Conqueror during the Ottoman period.

Today, this imposing fort is open to the public and visitors can see its dungeons as well as walking along its well-preserved walls and battlements.

A Guide to Byzantine Istanbul: Experiencing the Legacy of Constantinople

Last Updated on: 23rd August 2023, 11:52 pm

For over 1,000 years, Constantinople was considered one of the world’s most glorious cities. But exploring Istanbul today, the city’s Byzantine legacy largely goes unnoticed by tourists and residents alike. Most Byzantine churches are now mosques, while other structures have largely been left to rot. But if one puts forth the effort, there’s a lot more left of Byzantine Istanbul than first meets the eye.

The following guide covers most, but not all, of the former Byzantine structures that one can find in modern Istanbul. The goal is to provide some much-needed historical context to better understand this important era of the city. Not only is Istanbul’s Byzantine legacy largely ignored in present-day Turkey, but some fear it’s being deliberately erased.

Nearly all of the following locations can be found within Istanbul’s Fatih district, the large area which corresponds to the former walled city of Constantinople. And the Byzantine sites can easily be visited in tandem with the best-known structures of the Ottoman era .

Constantinople: A Brief History

Hagia sophia.

• The Hippodrome

The Basilica Cistern

The cistern of theodosius.

• The Great Palace Mosaic Museum

Hagia Irene

Little hagia sophia, more around eastern fatih, galata tower, chora church, edirne gate & city walls, palace of the porphyrogenitus, more around western fatih.

• Accommodation & Transport Info

By the late 3rd century AD, the Roman Empire had been weakened by incessant civil wars, and so officials decided to divide the empire into two halves, hoping to achieve a balance of power. And one of the rulers of the East was Emperor Constantine, later known as Constantine the Great. 

Constantine decided to construct a brand new capital near the Bosphorus Strait, at the site of the small Greek city of Byzantium. He called his new city Constantinople, dedicating it as the capital of the entire Roman Empire in 330.

Constantine quickly started a massive new building campaign which included the city’s legendary defensive walls. He even commissioned the city’s first churches, later becoming the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity on his deathbed.

When the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 AD, Constantinople accepted scores of refugees from throughout Europe. And later in the 6th century, Emperor Justinian I sought to reconquer the lost lands of the west. 

But he was highly disliked at home, giving rise to the Nika Riots. Not only did the riots destroy many of the city’s most important buildings, but tens of thousands of citizens were killed in response.

Nevertheless, Justinian remains one of Byzantium’s best-known emperors, as he commissioned the new Hagia Sophia cathedral to replace the previous damaged church. The structure continues to dominate the Istanbul skyline to this day.

Also during Justinian’s reign, two Byzantine monks managed to smuggle silkworms from China, giving Constantinople control over silk production in Europe that would grow its economy tremendously. Throughout the ages, various visitors to Constantinople raved about its opulent palaces and lavish wealth.

As the Byzantine Empire’s territory expanded, the formidable Theodosian walls managed to repel numerous invasions at home. In the 7th century, they met their most formidable challenge yet: Arab invaders from the south. But the Byzantines managed to protect their city with an innovative weapon known as ‘Greek fire,’ an early version of a flamethrower.

In the 11th century, a schism occurred between the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, after which all Latin churches in Constantinople were shut down. And relations between the two sides would never truly thaw. 

Later in the 11th century, the Byzantines would lose much of their eastern territories to the invading Seljuk Turks . Emperor Alexios I Komnenos begged the Catholics for help. And as they were intent on retaking Jerusalem from the Turks, they sent over a huge army in a religious war that would become known as the Crusades.

Things got especially wild in the 1200s when the Fourth Crusade was launched to retake Jerusalem from the Ayyubids. When the European Crusaders ran out of funds, they aligned themselves with the son of a deposed Byzantine Emperor, Alexios IV Angelos, who promised them great riches in return for taking Constantinople.

Unfortunately for Alexios, there was much less money in the city treasury than he’d expected. Unable to pay them, the Crusaders revolted, eventually taking Constantinople for themselves. And from 1204-1261, Constantinople became a Latin Catholic city.

While the Orthodox Byzantines eventually regained control, they found a damaged, depleted, and largely empty city. Over the next few centuries, Constantinople would gradually be able to recuperate, but their former territory would almost be entirely gobbled up by the Ottomans.

By the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire had already controlled much of Anatolia, the Balkans and Thrace. But they were unable to conquer Constantinople due to its impenetrable walls.

But in 1453, after a 53-day siege and with help from innovative new cannon technology, they finally managed to breach the city walls. The Hagia Sophia was soon converted to a mosque, and the Byzantine Empire was over for good. 

The fall of Constantinople is largely considered to be the official end of the Roman Empire, a state that had existed in some form or another since the 6th century BC.

The Hagia Sophia, completed in the year 537, is Istanbul’s most famous Byzantine landmark and the most well-known building in the entire city. 

Following the events known as the Nika Riots, in which the previous church near the imperial palace was burnt down, Emperor Justinian I replaced it with one of the largest and most elaborate religious structures in the world.

He employed tens of thousands of workers, using stone brought in from all over the empire. The project’s main architects were Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus, both of whom were said to be Neoplatonists.

Surrounded by a multitude of half domes, the central dome stands at around 55 meters off the ground, or 18 stories high. Damaged in 553 by an earthquake, it was repaired several years later. 

Another major earthquake damaged the dome in 989, after which it was repaired by Armenian architect Trdat, designer of the Cathedral of Ani .

At first glance, the Hagia Sophia seems to resemble some of its neighboring structures, such as the Blue Mosque. But that’s because even a thousand years later, the former church remained the main source of inspiration for Ottoman architects.

And speaking of mosques, Hagia Sophia has once again been turned into a mosque in 2020 after almost a century as a secular museum.

Hagia Sophia as a Museum

For most of its history, the Hagia Sophia was an Orthodox Christian cathedral, though it was briefly converted to a Catholic church in the 1200s upon the Latin conquests.

Once the Ottomans managed to take Constantinople in 1453, they converted the Hagia Sophia to a mosque, which it remained until 1935. As depictions of the human form is forbidden in Islam, the Ottoman conquerors plastered over the walls, obscuring the mosaics and reliefs.

Eventually, though, Republic of Turkey founder Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , who sought to establish a modern and secular Turkey, decided to convert the structure to a secular museum. And subsequent restoration efforts revealed much of the original artwork that had been hidden for centuries.

I was fortunate to have visited the Hagia Sophia while it was still a museum before recently seeing it again as a mosque.

During its time as a museum, visitors could admire the elegant stone floor which dates to the 6th century. Comprised of various colored stones, it was praised by ancient authors for its resemblance to the sea.

As we’ll cover shortly, the flooring is now obscured by a generic green carpet that doesn’t match at all with the Hagia Sophia’s color scheme.

Also in the past, visitors were able to access the upper level, which is where many of the most remarkable artwork and mosaics can be found.

The most notable mosaics include those of Empress Zoe and Emperor John Commenus II and his family. From the second-story windows, one could also view the tombs of various princes and sultans.

Hagia Sophia as a Mosque

In 2020, the decision by Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan to revert the Hagia Sophia back to a mosque was met with great controversy. The international community largely condemned the move, while reactions within Turkey have been mixed. 

Unfortunately for those who simply want to admire the structure as a tourist, numerous recent changes have hampered the visiting experience.

As mentioned above, a new carpet obscures most of the marble flooring. And looking up, you’ll notice that the apse mosaic of the Virgin and Child has been obscured – even outside of prayer times.

To be fair, though, the Hagia Sophia’s appearance largely remains the same – at least from the ground floor. Many of the Islamic elements had already been present, such as the minbar and mihrab, which indicates the direction of Mecca. 

The large medallions with Arabic writing that mention the names of Allah and Muhammad were also there during the museum phase.

Some of the other Christian mosaics are visible during visiting hours, while special curtains have been installed to obscure them during prayer times. Considering the countless other mosques throughout the city, this seems like a lot of extra work.

Another addition dating to Ottoman times are the large marble jars brought here in the 16th century by Sultan Murad III. Dating from the Hellenistic era, they were retrieved from the ancient city of Pergamon .

As mentioned above, the second story is now completely inaccessible. And even large portions of the bottom floor have been designated as the women’s prayer area, leaving it entirely off-limits for males.

The Hagia Sophia is now free for all to enter. And while that sounds like a plus, the structure now maintains a constant loud and raucous atmosphere, paradoxically feeling even less sacred than it had as a museum.

We should at least be thankful that this masterpiece has remained intact for all these years. The Byzantines themselves were much less kind to numerous architectural marvels throughout Anatolia that happened to be of pagan origin.

The Hippodrome of Constantinople

Just nearby the Hagia Sophia is the former Hippodrome of Constantinople, now known as Sultanahmet Square. In the Byzantine era, this was where chariot races took place along tracks that were as long as 450 meters.

And while no longer evident, the Hippodrome featured stands that could seat as many as 30,000 people! 

Today, the space functions as a nice place to relax in the shade on a hot day (but beware of touts). And it’s also home to three interesting landmarks that were erected in the Byzantine era.

The Obelisk of Theodosius

As obvious at first glance, the Obelisk of Theodosius is not Byzantine in origin but ancient Egyptian. In fact, it was originally erected by Thutmosis III outside of Karnak Temple’s seventh pylon in the 15th century BC. So what’s it doing here?

During Roman rule over Egypt, it was first transported by Emperor Constantius II from Luxor to Alexandria in 357. After remaining there for decades, it was finally transported here by Emperor Theodosius I in 390, possibly marking the finish line of the racetrack.

For those who’ve seen other Egyptian obelisks, you’ll notice how short this one looks. Now around 20 meters high, it used to be 10 meters higher.

While we don’t know for sure, it was possibly broken down on purpose for easier transportation, which makes one wonder how the Egyptians managed to do it over a millennium prior.

It sits atop a carved marble pedestal showing scenes of Theodosius honoring the victors of the local races.

The Serpent Column

Yet another landmark taken from an ancient wonder is the Serpent Column. This bronze column comes from the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, Greece, home of the famous oracle. And it was brought here by the first Byzantine emperor, Constantine the Great. 

The column was originally erected in honor of the Greeks’ victory over the Persians in the 5th century BC. 

Now standing at only five meters of an original eight, it was once topped with the heads of three different snakes emerging from its base. Part of one is now on display at the nearby Istanbul Archaeology Museum.

The Walled Obelisk

The Walled Obelisk was likely added at the southern end of the racetrack to mirror the Obelisk of Theodosius at the opposite end. It stands at 32 meters tall, the same height as the obelisk at the Circus Maximus in Rome.

It was entirely plated with gilt bronze in the 10th century, all of which was plundered by participants of the Fourth Crusade a few centuries later.

Ancient Constantinople was home to dozens of cisterns that ensured the city wouldn’t run out of water even during prolonged sieges. And the largest of them all is the Basilica Cistern, located just southwest of the Hagia Sophia. It’s presently one of Istanbul’s most popular tourist attractions. 

It contains no less than 336 marble columns which stand at 9 meters high. Constructed in the 6th century during the reign of Justinian, it’s named as such because a basilica once stood at this spot.

The cistern makes for a nice respite from the midday heat. And as you walk around, there are a few notable landmarks to look out for.

One of them is the ‘Crying Column,’ also known as the Hen’s Eye, which resembles the columns of the Triumphal Arch of Theodosius I. Not only is the column usually wet (it was dry in 2020), but the tear-shaped patterns are said to commemorate the workers who perished during the cistern’s construction.

In the northwest corner, meanwhile, are two large Medusa heads acting as pedestals for columns. One is sideways while another is upside down, and the origin of both remains a mystery.

It seems they were placed this way purely for practical, and not aesthetic reasons. The builders never could’ve envisioned that hordes of tourists would one day be lining up in front of them to snap pictures!

In Byzantine times, this cistern would’ve been entirely filled with water. But as a modern tourist attraction, the level has to be kept low enough for visitors to get around.

While there’s typically enough water to house a large community of fish, the cistern was entirely dried up during my more recent visit. Asking a local why, he explained that too many of the fish were mysteriously dying, leaving officials with no choice but to empty everything out!

Not far away is yet another ancient cistern that was built in the early 5th century by Theodosius II. It’s only been open to the public since 2018 following eight years of restoration. 

While this cistern only contains 32 columns, they’re just as high as those of the Basilica Cistern and noticeably thicker. The lack of crowds combined with the brighter lighting arguably makes this the better visiting experience, though you can easily visit both.

And for people who are really into cisterns, the Byzantine cistern of Dara Ancient City is also worth a look for those traveling to the east. It was constructed right around the same time as the Basilica Cistern.

Great Palace Mosaic Museum

If you’re interested in Byzantine-era mosaics, the Great Palace Mosaic Museum is a must. But the building itself is also an important landmark for the history of the city, as it was the royal residence of the Byzantine emperors.

The palace was lost at some point, and not much was left when archaeologists discovered it in 1935. What did survive, however, were large portions of the mosaic flooring which have remained in place all these years.

The mosaics largely date to the 6th century and depict animals, various mythical creatures and hunting scenes. Many of the empire’s top artists were commissioned to work here, and they clearly took great inspiration from the mosaic traditions of ancient Greece and Rome.

In addition to the huge flooring piece, numerous fragments discovered throughout the area have been placed along the walls. While the museum could use a modern facelift, you’ll at least find ample English signage. 

Despite its historical importance, the Great Palace Mosaic Museum gets relatively few visitors compared with the other landmarks around Sultanahmet.

On your way to  Topkapi Palace , you’ll pass by a significant yet relatively unassuming Byzantine church known as Hagia Irene. While the current structure dates to the 6th century, it was built on the spot of the very first Byzantine church constructed by Emperor Constantine.

Following an earthquake in the 8th century, much of the church had to be reconstructed. And this happened to be during a unique period in Byzantine history in which all religious imagery and icons were banned. That’s why the dome above the apse features nothing but a simple cross.

Given the absence of human figures here, it’s rather surprising that this was one of the few Byzantine churches to have not been converted to a mosque! It was instead used by the Ottomans as an arsenal.

At the time of my visit, there was hardly anything to see inside due to restorations. Hagia Irene was, however, an attraction included on the Istanbul Card Museum Pass (more below ).

If construction is still ongoing during your visit, 60 TL for entry simply isn’t worth it.

Quite surprisingly, the Little Hagia Sophia is slightly older than the famous one, having been completed a year earlier in 536. 

Located in the southern Fatih district in the neighborhood of Kumkapı, it receives few foreign visitors. But it’s a beautiful building that should be visited by those with an interest in Byzantine Istanbul.

The church was also known as Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus, after two saints who supposedly rescued Justinian I when he was a boy. At the time, his uncle was on the throne and Justinian was accused of treason. But Sergius and Bacchus vouched for him and saved the day.

The building features an octagonal dome surrounded by half domes. The church was converted to a mosque in Ottoman times and also became home to the Huseyin Aga Madrasa, an Islamic theological school.

The interior is worth a look for its beautiful marble columns. It’s clearly received some recent paint jobs, however, and much of the Byzantine artwork is likely long gone.

The Column of Constantine

Located near the Grand Bazaar, the Column of Constantine is one of the city’s most important historical landmarks, as it was erected to commemorate Emperor Constantine’s official dedication of the city on May 11, 330.

Standing at around 35 m tall, it originally once stood as high as 50 m and was topped with a bronze statue of Apollo made to resemble Constantine himself. 

It was constructed of a purple-reddish stone called porphyry that was commonly associated with royalty. The iron reinforcing hoops we see today, meanwhile, were later added by the Ottomans.

Intriguingly, numerous important relics are rumored to have been buried beneath it. These include a fragment of the True Cross, an axe used by Noah, and even the palladium of Troy .

According to Greek mythology, Troy couldn’t fall as long as it maintained its palladium, a wooden image of Pallas Athena. As such, Odysseus and Diomedes managed to sneak into the city and retrieve it, and Troy fell not long after. 

After a long series of travels, some believe it was later brought to Constantinople from Rome and buried here.

Sphendon Wall

In the southeastern part of the Fatih district, not far from the Little Hagia Sophia, are some dilapidated Byzantine-era remnants that officials don’t seem quite sure what to do with.

One is the Sphendon Wall, which marked the southern boundary of the Hippodrome structure.

Bucoleon Palace

Another is the Bucoleon Palace, a royal palace built alongside the Marmara seashore. It may be as old as the 5th century, while the crumbling walls we see today were likely added in the 9th century.

Some of the former supporting pillars are on display at the nearby Istanbul Archaeology Museum.

The only landmark in this Byzantine Istanbul guide located outside the Fatih district is the Galata Tower, which nevertheless plays an important role in the history of Constantinople.

Situated in the Beyoğlu district, just across the Golden Horn, the Galata Tower is one of the city’s most iconic landmarks. While perhaps best appreciated from the water, the tower can also be visited for excellent views of the city.

Erected in 1348, the Galata Tower was not built by the Byzantines but by the Genoese, who controlled the Golden Horn’s northern shore. At 67 m high, it was the tallest building in Istanbul at the time.

But it had replaced an earlier tower built as early as the 6th century by Byzantine emperor Anastasius. Amazingly, a long iron chain, stretching all the way from the city walls across the water, was sometimes attached to the tower to block enemy ships.

Nowadays, a modern elevator takes visitors to the top to enjoy the 360° panoramic views of Istanbul. But after admiring the views, history lovers shouldn’t miss the smaller exhibitions spread out amongst the lower floors.

Here you’ll find displays of artifacts from early Roman times as well as the Byzantine and Ottoman eras. The museum also explains how the Genoese built a thriving merchant colony here that was even surrounded by its own city walls.

And don’t miss the fragment of the original iron chain used by the Byzantines for defense. While it repelled most unwanted guests, the invaders of the Fourth Crusade managed to destroy the original tower and bring the chain down.

But a lost, nearby tower was later used for the same purpose, with an iron chain being used again to block Ottomans ships in the 15th century. In response, the Ottomans dragged their ships overland around Galata Tower, entering the Golden Horn from the middle!

Chora Church is one of Istanbul’s most impressive landmarks – from the Byzantine era or otherwise. But given its location at the western end of the Fatih district in the Edirnekapı neighborhood, it gets relatively few visitors. 

But that’s all the more reason to visit, especially for mosaic lovers. In fact, the glittering mosaics here are widely considered to be among the finest the Byzantine Empire ever created.

Chora Church was originally built in the 5th century outside the initial city walls, and Chora means ‘countryside’ in Greek. But it became part of the walled city after Emperor Theodosius expanded the city’s boundaries. 

The church was renovated multiple times over the years and the structure standing today was likely built in the 12th century.

Most of the mosaics, which largely depict scenes from the New Testament and various saints, date from the 14th century. Major importance was placed on realistic proportions and the style would go on to influence later mosaic projects throughout Byzantium.

The entire outer narthex is bursting with detail and color, and it’s easily one of the most impressive churches you’ll encounter in former Byzantine lands.

The building is supposed to be quite impressive from the outside as well, but it was totally obscured by scaffolding at the time of my visit. 

As you’ll discover when entering the nave, Chora Church was converted to a mosque in Ottoman times, as evidenced by the minbar and mihrab.

And it was later changed to a secular museum, which it still was at the time of my visit in late 2020. But within days of my trip, the Chora Church was officially transformed into the Kariye Mosque.

With all of the active mosques in Istanbul, there’s really no rational explanation for the move, other than President Erdoğan’s desire to liken himself to an Ottoman conqueror.

In the 4th century, Constantine the Great built the city walls much further out than the inhabited area of the city at the time. He fully expected the city to grow tremendously, and he was right. But even Constantine underestimated what a huge city Constantinople would become.

Later in the 5th century, Theodosius II built a new set of walls a further 2 km to the west. In total, the city walls stretched out to a massive 20 km.

Rather than a single layer, the fortifications were comprised of a series of walls which were in turn surrounded by a moat and flanked with 96 limestone towers.

The walls were soon tested, and they successfully managed to repel Atilla and his army of Huns. And for the next thousand years, they were also able to fend off a multitude of other invasions.

But the Turks, after years of trying, finally managed to breach the walls during the siege of 1453. While the first gate to be breached was the San Romano gate further south, the Edirne Gate (Edirnekapı) was that through which Ottoman Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror first entered the city.

Also in the Edirnekapı district is the 13th-century Palace of the Porphyrogenitus. Together with the two palaces mentioned above, this is just one of three Byzantine palaces to have survived in the city. And it’s by far the best-preserved.

The multistory structure now functions as a museum. At the time of my visit, a photography exhibit and documentary screening were taking place in the outer courtyard, though neither had anything to do with Byzantine Istanbul or Turkey in general.

Inside are some interesting exhibits, including a full miniature model of the surviving city walls. And the upper floors largely focus on the Ottoman period, when the structure functioned as a ceramic factory.

As a rare surviving example of a secular Byzantine structure, the Palace of the Porphyrogenitus is worth a quick visit and can easily be combined with a trip to Chora Church.

Pantokrator Monastery

Pantokrator Monastery, currently known as Zeyrek Mosque, is one of the largest surviving Byzantine churches in the city. It was constructed in the early 12th century by Byzantine Empress Irene, and the monastery contained a library, hospital, medical school and pharmacy.

While the mosque was closed for restorations at the time of my visit, it was still impressive from the outside.

Valens Aqueduct

The Valens Aqueduct is the city’s largest surviving aqueduct, and it was built as early as the 4th century. Started by Emperor Constantine II, it was completed by Valens in 373. It’s via this aqueduct that water was transported to the city center’s main cisterns.

It even remained in use during Ottoman times, and today has merged seamlessly with a modern highway.

The Gül Mosque, located in the Ayakapı neighborhood, is yet another former Byzantine church to have been converted to a mosque by the Ottomans.

A nun named Theodosia was worshipped here, who famously prevented the removal of an icon during the iconoclastic period of the 8th century. Despite causing the death of the officer who tried to take it and getting executed for the crime, she later came to be revered as a martyr.

Hirami Ahmet Pasha Mosque

The petite Hirami Ahmet Pasha Mosque was formerly known as ‘Saint John the Forerunner by-the-Dome’ and little is known about it. It does hold the distinction of being the smallest surviving Byzantine church, however.

While not worth going out of your way for, it’s worth a quick look for those exploring the Çarşamba neighborhood.

Pammakaristos Church

Also within the Çarşamba neighborhood is Pammakaristos Church, one of the few elaborate Byzantine churches to have remained a museum.

Built in the 11th or 12th century, it’s known for both its beautiful exterior and well-preserved mosaics. While completely inaccessible and covered by scaffolding during my visit, it should be worth seeking out once restorations are finished.

Additional Info

Nearly all of the locations mentioned above are located in Istanbul’s Fatih district, or historical Constantinople. And staying somewhere within Fatih would be ideal for easy access to the main Byzantine Istanbul landmarks as well as the main Ottoman ones.

The Fatih district as a whole is huge, but the neighborhood with the highest number of historical monuments is Sultanahmet (Hagia Sophia, Hippodrome, Blue Mosque, Basilica Cistern, etc.). Accordingly, there are plenty of hotels to choose from around here.

I stayed in the Eminönü neighborhood to the west of Sultanahmet, which I found perfect for getting around. Not only is the neighborhood within walking distance of Sultanahmet, but it’s also near the ferry port from which Bosphorus cruises depart, along with boats to the Anatolian side and Büyükada .

If you’re a budget traveler, there’s a certain section of Eminönü just southwest of the Haliç Metro Station that’s home to numerous cheap hotels.

Most of them aren’t listed online, but you can simply walk around and pick one out. I stayed at a place called Ferah Otel which only cost me 75 TL per night for a private room/bathroom and with decent internet. It was a bit rough around the edges, but there are slightly fancier hotels around the area as well.

Many visitors choose to stay in the Taksim district, as did I during my first visit to the city. But as nice as Taksim is, it’s located some distance from many of Istanbul’s major attractions.

Given its population of over 15 million people, Istanbul’s public transport system is surprisingly substandard. While the city has both a subway and a tramway, there are many significant landmarks and bustling neighborhoods that neither rail system will take you to. On top of that, Uber doesn’t work in Istanbul, either.

That’s why you should consider renting a car for your trip from a site like  Discover Cars . Picking one up at the new Istanbul Airport, you can make the long journey into the city independently and easily. And then you’ll be free to explore Istanbul’s historic sites at your leisure.

If you’re doing further travels in Turkey (and you definitely should), Discover Cars offers various one-way rental options between different cities. At the time of writing, small car rentals start from as low as € 23 per day.

If you don’t have your own transport, public bus would probably be the most convenient way to get around Istanbul, though traffic jams are a frequent problem. The bus routes are marked on Google Maps, so you shouldn’t have much trouble getting around as long as you have internet access.

If you’re based in the Sultanahmet or Eminönü districts, many of the Byzantine Istanbul attractions mentioned above can simply be accessed on foot.

And for those visiting the Anatolian side, frequent ferries depart from Eminönü and Karaköy.

Before beginning your explorations around the city, you may want to consider buying an Istanbul Museum Card.

As one might expect, the entry fee for attractions in Istanbul are considerably higher than in other parts of the country, and this pass is one of the few that actually saved me money.

At the time of my visit, the pass cost 325 TL. Valid for 5 days, it allowed access to Galata Tower (30 TL), the Istanbul Mosaic Museum (30 TL), the Istanbul Archaeology Museum (50 TL), Hagia Irene (60 TL), Topkapı Palace (100 TL) and Harem Apartments (70 TL), and numerous other attractions.

It also included the Chora Church, though that should already be a free mosque by now.

As prices are always changing in Turkey due to inflation, be sure to check the current prices of everything before making your decision.

While the Turkish government isn’t quite as extreme as China when it comes to online censorship, you’ll probably want a decent VPN before your visit.

I’ve tried out a couple of different companies and have found  ExpressVPN  to be the most reliable.

Booking.com is currently banned in the country (at least when you search for domestic accommodation). However, there are actually quite a few Turkish hotels listed on there anyway. And many them don’t even appear on Hotels.com, which hasn’t been banned.

Over the course of my trip, I ended up making quite a few reservations with Booking.com and was really glad I had a VPN to do so.

Another major site that’s banned is PayPal. If you want to access your account at all during your travels, a VPN is a must.

While those are the only two major sites that I noticed were banned during my trip, Turkey has even gone as far as banning Wikipedia and Twitter in the past.

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Why mankind’s greatest threat is mankind.

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Recently, some Russian political leaders and generals, an occasional Chinese Communist Party insider, Turkish President Recep Erdoğan, unhinged North Korean Kim Jong-un and, of course, the Iranian theocracy, have threatened to annihilate their enemies.

Sometimes the saber-rattlers boast of using nuclear weapons, surprise invasions, or rocket barrages, such as we saw against Israel last month. 

Or as Erdoğan recently warned Greece of Turkey’s new missile arsenal, “We can come down suddenly one night when the time comes.”

Taiwan is told it will be absorbed.

North Korea warned recently it would “annihilate” South Korea. 

When we dismiss these lunatic threats, are we really assured they’re truly crazy?

The aim of wars, of course, is to defeat the enemy.

But usually in history the victors do not annihilate the losers — wiping out their people, civilization, language and physical space. 

Even the devastated powers of World War II, Germany, Japan and Italy, survived and rebooted their nations into responsible democracies.

Modern democratic Israel is a testament to the courage and resilience of the postwar Jewish people. 

Yet occasionally in the past war became existential and final, erasing permanently the defeated civilization, and under a variety of gruesome circumstances that offer important warnings today.

Alexander the Great in 335 B.C. besieged and wiped out the 1,000-year-old iconic city of Thebes.

He slaughtered the adult males, enslaved the women and children and razed the fabled Greek city-state to the ground. 

In just one day, Alexander finished off the mythical home of Cadmus, Oedipus and Antigone, and the great democratic liberator Epameinondas. 

The empire of the North African city of Carthage once was larger than Rome.

But after defeats in two Punic Wars, Carthage over a century was reduced to a coastal corridor in modern-day Tunisia.

Yet by 149 B.C., the city was again thriving.

It wished peace with Rome — at least until a huge Roman fleet unexpectedly arrived on African shores determined to obliterate their once powerful rival. 

Cato the Elder, the aged archenemy of Carthage, finished each of his Roman senate harangues with “ Carthago delenda est : Carthage must be destroyed!” 

That proved not just rhetoric.

Without cause, Rome prompted the Third Punic War (149-6 B.C.), more a siege than a real war.

The Romans finally annihilated the city of 500,000, killed all but an enslaved 50,000, and left the majestic metropolis a junk heap.

In 1453, the Ottomans finally overran the 1,100 year-old city of Constantinople, the hub of Hellenism, Christianity and the Byzantine Empire for over a millennium.

They killed, enslaved, or relegated to inferior status the entire population, and turned the majestic Hagia Sophia cathedral into the mosque that it remains today.

The conquerors appropriated the shell of the once greatest city in Christendom as their new capital of an Islamic Ottoman Empire. 

So ended the ancient Christian Hellenic civilization of Asia.

In 1520, Hernán Cortés led a tiny army of about 1,500 conquistadors to attack the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán.

In less than two years, the Spanish destroyed the four-million-person Aztec empire with the help of indigenous allies who hated the mass sacrifices of the Aztecs.

What do these examples of annihilation have in common?

The doomed are never really aware of the fate that awaits them. 

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Often their glorious past deludes them into assuming that their once formidable defenses — the seven gates of Thebes, the massive fortifications of Carthage, the 35-foot-high Theodosian walls of Constantinopl, and the vast lake surrounding Tenochtitlán — would ensure their safety. 

False hopes always arose that help was on the way. Surely allies — like the Athenians — will save Thebes.

Or the enemies of Rome would rescue Carthage in its eleventh-hour. 

Would not the Western Europeans sail up the Dardanelles in time to break the Ottoman siege of Constantinople? 

Would not the subjects of the Aztec Empire finally turn on the Spaniards?

As for the destroyers of entire civilizations, they prove not always just the stereotypical mass murderers of history like Attila the Hun, Tamerlane or Genghis Khan.

Often the annihilators were the well-educated, such as Alexander the Great, student of Aristotle, and companion of philosophers. 

The annihilator of Carthage, Scipio Aemilianus, was an intellectual who befriended the brilliant historian Polybius and was a patron of literature.

Mehmet II, who wiped away Christian Constantinople, was proud of his enormous library. 

And the more such conquerors feigned no intention of erasing their enemies, the more they methodically did so — and in the aftermath shed crocodile tears over the extinction.

We live today with far easier tools of civilizational destruction nuclear, bioweaponry, cyberwar and perhaps soon artificial intelligence.

And from Israel to Greece to Taiwan, there are plenty of vulnerable peoples and nations threatened by their historically hostile neighbors. 

It would be a grave mistake to assume in 2024 that such annihilation cannot happen again — even in our globalized and supposedly civilized world.

Victor Davis Hanson is a senior fellow in classics and military history at the Hoover Institution, Stanford University. This piece has been adapted from his new book The End of Everything. How Wars Descend Into Annihilation (Basic Books).

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ChatGPT and the like could free up coders to new heights of creativity

Far from making programmers an endangered species, AI will release them from the grunt work that stifles innovation

W hen digital computers were invented, the first task was to instruct them to do what we wanted. The problem was that the machines didn’t understand English – they only knew ones and zeros. You could program them with long sequences of these two digits and if you got the sequence right then the machines would do what you wanted. But life’s too short for composing infinite strings of ones and zeros, so we began designing programming languages that allowed us to express our wishes in a human-readable form that could then be translated (by a piece of software called a “compiler”) into terms that machines could understand and obey.

Over the next 60 years or so, these programming languages – with names such as Fortran, Basic, Algol, COBOL, PL/1, LISP, C, C++, Python – proliferated like rabbits, so that there are now many hundreds, perhaps even thousands, of them. At any rate, it takes quite a while to scroll down to the end of the Wikipedia page that lists them . Some are very specialised, others more general, and over the years programmers created libraries of snippets of code (called subroutines ) for common tasks – searching and sorting, for example – that you could incorporate when writing a particular program.

For more than half a century, therefore, an arcane, exclusive priesthood evolved, of people who had mastered one or more of these specialised languages and were able to make computers do their bidding. Membership of the priesthood gave one an intoxicating feeling of absolute power. In software, remember, you can program a set of pixels to move endlessly in a circle, say, and they will continue to do that for ever if you leave them to it. They need neither fuel nor food, and they will never complain. “In that sense,” I once wrote when writing a history of this technology, “being a programmer is like being Napoleon before the retreat from Moscow. Software is the only medium in which the limits are exclusively those set by your imagination.”

This is why, when large language models (LLMs) such as ChatGPT emerged, many people were flabbergasted to discover that not only could these machines compose coherent English sentences, but they could also write computer programs ! Instead of having to master the byzantine intricacies of C++ or Python in order to converse with the machine, you could explain what you wanted it to do and it would spit out the necessary code. You could program the machine in plain English!

How was this possible? Essentially because, in its training phase, the machine has ingested a lot of published computer code – just as it has also ingested virtually every examination paper that has ever been published. And although the computer code that it produces often has flaws in it, they can often be ironed out in successive iterations. The technology is already pretty good, which is why programmers have been early adopters of it as a kind of “co-pilot” . And it will get steadily better.

So are we seeing the twilight of the software priesthood, as some of the more apocalyptic reactions to LLMs claim? Personally I doubt it, if only because we always overestimate the short-term impact of tech change, while underestimating its longer-term effects. What these AI “co-pilots” really do is take the grunt work out of programming, freeing those who understand software to do more interesting and productive things.

When GitHub, the programmers’ repository owned by Microsoft, quizzed more than 2,000 professional software professionals about the technology, the results supported that view: 88% said that it made them more productive; 59% said it made the job less frustrating; 74% said that it had enabled them to focus on “more satisfying work”; 96% found that it made them faster when doing repetitive tasks; and 77% said that they now spent less time searching. This is the image not of Armageddon, but of something more positive.

And already, AI co-pilots are beginning to change how programming itself is taught. Most introductory computer science courses tended to focus on code syntax and getting programs to run, and while knowing how to read and write code is still essential, testing and debugging now need to be taught more explicitly. Academics are finding that the fact that students are using AI tools frees up time “to teach higher-level thinking – for example, how to design software, what is the right problem to solve, and what are the solutions? Students can spend more time on optimisation, ethical issues and the user-friendliness of a system rather than focusing on the syntax of the code.”

Mario Fusco, a great software developer, once said: “The code you write makes you a programmer. The code you delete makes you a good one. The code you don’t have to write makes you a great one.” So maybe, for once, AI is on to something.

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What I’ve been reading

Student disunion Very perceptive blogpost , Universities As Factories, by the economist Branko Milanovic about the Columbia demonstrations.

Short is sweet The Tyranny of Content Algorithms : a succinct essay on the importance of quality over quantity by Silicon Valley veteran Om Malik.

Where Walter went wrong What Elon Musk’s Favourite Game Tells Us About Him is the title of Dave Karpf’s blistering critique of Musk’s biographer, Walter Isaacson.

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