what is travel speed in 3d printing

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3D Printing Speeds: 10 Speed Settings Tips To Print Faster

Beginners usually find themselves experimenting with printing speed because they aren’t sure how to choose the correct setting for their project.

However, aside from delaying production, poor printing speeds could also lead to imperfections and flawed outputs.

Thus, it’s something you should be sure of whenever you do your 3D object, especially if it’s for rapid prototyping .

If you need to learn more about setting your printing speeds, you are just on the right page. By the end of this article, you will know how to determine the perfect speed to produce a quality 3D printed object. Also, I will give you several tips if you want to print faster.

So, let’s get started!

What Is 3D Printing Speed?

3D printing speed is the main speed setting when you are 3D printing.

It refers to how fast your 3D printer’s motor moves, including the X- and Y-axis control and the extruder motor. It is usually measured in seconds (unit of time) and kg, mm or cm3 (unit of manufactured material).

You can download a print speed test model to test your printer’s speed. The test model comes with instructions on adjusting the correct settings because the model linked will essentially print the same shape at gradually increasing speeds, allowing you to see for yourself the optimal setting to achieve a flawless output.

There are many factors when we talk about printing speeds like retraction speed, travel speed and more.

Retraction speed is the speed at which the extruder motor drives back the filament. A good retraction speed is between 1200-6000 mm/min (20-100 mm/s) where retraction performs best. When the retraction speed is too fast, the drive gear may grind away pieces of the filament.

Travel speed is the moving speed of the print head during non-printing status. It refers to the movement of the print head without squeezing the printing material out from the nozzle.

When travel speed is too slow, it could lead to stringing issues on the 3D printed object. A good travel speed for a 3D printer is 100 millimeters per second. But the optimum travel speed might differ for each 3D printer.

Here’s why you should aim for the accurate speed:

When the print speed is too slow, it could cause deformation due to the nozzle sitting on the plastic for too long. And when the speed is too fast, it results in ringing, which is caused by overly excessive vibrations.

Also, when you go too fast, the extruder might not be able to keep up and end extruding less filament than it should.

Hitting the sweet spot will enable the 3D printer to work fast, accurately, and flawlessly without sacrificing the quality of the output.

Print speeds and quality go hand-in-hand; that’s why it’s very important to use the right speed to achieve the desired results.

Overall, you will get a better quality output if you use a lower speed than a higher speed. However, that is only true when your 3D printer is not operating at its optimal conditions.

Also, some would argue that printing speed doesn’t impact print quality. That’s because other factors directly impact the print quality, which is as follows:

Type of 3D printer

The type of 3D printer will also affect the quality of the 3D prints without being influenced by the print speed.

A high-quality 3D printer can be set in a high-speed setting and achieve first-class quality 3D prints.

However, if you use a 3D printer of lower quality with the same speed, you won’t get the same high-quality results.

Type Of 3D Printing Material

The speed will be faster when using a high-quality support material because you do not need to keep unclogging the nozzle.

Also, you do not need to deal with support material getting stuck.

When you are done printing, you will remove the material without reducing the print quality.

How Fast Is A 3D Printer?

Regardless of whether you are using a slow 3D printer or the fastest 3D printers , several factors directly affect how fast your printer could finish a certain project.

Let’s get into more details below.

Resolution of the 3D printed part

Part of the process before 3D printing is slicing the model into layers on a 3D slicer such as Cura or Repetier-Host.

The more layers, the thinner each layer and the longer it will take to print. For instance, a part printed with 50-micron layers will have twice as many layers as the same part printed with 100-micron layers and take twice as long at the same speed.

Quality of print

Theoretically, you could run a budget 3D printer at its maximum speed — make it work at extremely high speed.

However, do not expect it to yield a result the same as on your slicer. Instead, it will probably result in a mess because the speed was too fast.

Some 3D printers, especially fast 3D printers, can handle high-speed 3D printing, but others don’t, especially budget 3D printers with limited capacity.

3D printing technology

The technology used is another factor that affects the speed. Resin 3D printers are faster than FDM 3D printers.

Yes, that’s true; even expensive FDM printers are slower than low-cost LCD 3D printers.

Aside from resin technologies used in SLA, DLP and LCD 3D printers, the fastest 3D printing technologies include Multi Jet Fusion.

Here’s an overview of the different printing speeds of the different 3D printing technology.

Materials or type of filaments use

However, the filaments mentioned above have different complexity.

Some are easier to print than others because they put less demand on the printer and make it print faster.

Model’s complexity

The 3D object you are about to print could also affect the speed of your machine. Printing a simple box will be easier for a 3D printer to finish than an intricate 3D printed jewelry piece.

Printing a larger object that’s not complex could make the printer work at a faster print speed without significant loss of quality because there are no intricate details needed.

However, the more complex or intricate the model, the more slow the speed is to ensure that it could follow the design as it is.

Infill settings

This factor affects the amount of materials extruded — depending on the level of the infill percentage; it could be between 10% to 100%. Infill settings affect the 3D printing space depending on the complexity.

The more complex the pattern, the longer it will take to finish printing. The effect of infills on printing speeds is through density.

A heavy density infill could promote the strength of the model. However, it also means that 3D printing will take more time or the printing speed is slower.

Size of print

Obviously, the larger the object to 3D print, the longer it will take for the 3D printer to finish. A full-size vase printed using an FDM printer could take 12 hours or more. But a small statue could only take under an hour.

It is true, provided that the two models are not very complex and have a significant difference in their sizes.

Nozzle size

For FDM 3D printers, the nozzle size matters in speed and performance. Smaller nozzles are great for working on models with intricate details.

Larger nozzles are not the best when printing objects with intricate details, but they can print faster.

How Fast Can The Fastest 3D Printer Print

There are a lot of fast 3D printers on the market today and the fastest FDM 3D printer — WASP 2040 PRO Turbo — could work as fast as 500mm/s.

Some said it could even print faster than that. Another great thing about it is that it is extremely accurate. However, DLP/SLA printers will always work faster than the fastest FDM 3D printer.

What Is A Good 3D Printing Speed

Here’s the recommended setting:

For slow 3D printers, it’s best to use 40 mm per second to 80mm per second. Mid-speed printers work best with 100mm per second. If you want to print faster, you can go 150mm per second. Fast-speed 3D printers can work beyond 150mm per second.

But you should note that there is no general print speed that works for all. There are many things that you need to consider to get the best print speed for your 3D desktop printer.

Here are some factors to consider:

Model’s outer wall. You should ask yourself, “how fast do you want the exterior of your model to be printed?” If your priority is surface quality, you better reduce the speed or opt for lower print speed settings.

Interior walls. For the interior, it is recommended that you use the same print speed in printing the overall model. The 3D printer speed needs to reduce the print time without lowering the 3D print strength.

Infill printing speed. For this, you also need to reduce printing time without compromising stability.

Bottom and top layers. For the last speed setting, you have to consider the top and bottom layers, and the best option is to go for a slightly lower print speed for better surface quality.

Print Speed Settings for PLA, ABS & More

But after a bit of trial and error, you will surely be able to find what works best for your 3D printer’s software and hardware.

The different 3D printing materials have different recommended print settings.

Here’s the good print speed for PLA, ABS, and more, so you will know how to get started when using them. You can refer to the following section for that.

What is a good 3D printing speed for PLA? When using PLA, you can start in the 40-60 mm/s range. It will give a good balance of print quality and speed.

However, depending on your 3D printer type, stability and set-up, you can increase the speed up to 100 mm/s. Some achieved great results at a higher speed, but the quality of your printer matters too.

A good print speed for ABS is typically similar to PLA between 40-60 mm/s. However, you can increase if you have an enclosure around your printer.

You can print ABS filament at a speed of 60 mm/s and keep the first layer speed to 70% of that and see if it will work for you. It works well for adhesion in some cases, ensuring that enough plastic is extruded out of the nozzle for proper and safe adhesion.

For PETG filament , a good print speed starts in the range of 50-6- mm/s. The filament could rise to string issues, so some will usually opt for 40 mm/s, and according to them, they find good results. PETG is a blend of ABS and PLA; that’s why the recommended print speed is not too far from the two’s recommended settings.

If you are using TPU, you can start with a speed between 15 mm/s to 30 mm/s. The filament is soft and should be printed much slower than the average filament. But if you are using a Direct Drive extrusion system, you can increase the speed to about 40 mm/s.

You can go a bit higher from the recommended speed of 15 – 30 mm/s and experiment. But then again, always remember that this is best printed at a low speed.

A good 3D print speed for nylon is between 30 mm/s to 60 mm/s, but most print with 40 mm/s for great quality and great details. You can also go higher, like 70 mm/s, because it is still sustainable if you increase the nozzle temperature side by side.

10 Tips to Get the Best Print Speed Calculation

In addition, it reduces problems such as warping or curling.

Yes, speed is very important because it has to do with your 3D printed model’s quality, accuracy and strength. With the right print setting, you can strike a perfect balance to achieve the three.

Here are some tips to increase print speed from 3D printerly. However, you should note that some of them might affect the quality of your print.

1. Increase print speed in slicer settings

Find the balance of your print speed in the slicer settings. It will be very helpful, especially if you depend on how big the print is because the size of the object is relatively related to printing time. Again, experiment to find the perfect balance of speed and quality, and in time, you will find it.

2. Adjust acceleration and jerk settings

Jerk settings refer to how fast the print head moves from a still position. When setting this, you want its movement to be smooth and fast at the same time.

You can test jerk settings by printing the vibration test cube and seeing whether the vibrations are visible on each axis by inspecting the corners, edges and letters on the cube.

Acceleration settings are how the print head gets to its top speed. A low acceleration means that the printer won’t get its top speed with smaller prints. Acceleration depends on several factors and is not the same in all of your 3D printing projects.

According to AK Eric, who did the test, comparing low jerk values (10) to high ones (40) on a 60 mm/sec speed made no difference in print speed. However, the lower value had better quality.

Increasing the speed at 120 mm/sec decreased printing time by 25% but at the expense of the quality. So, you can use the print speed settings to get what you want, but you might have to choose between speed and quality.

3. Infill pattern

For this, you can choose an infill pattern that prints faster than the others to save much time on increasing the print speed. The best has to be the “lines” pattern due to its simplicity and lower number of movements compared to other patterns. Depending on your model, the infill pattern can save you up to 25% of printing time.

The infill pattern is the strength of your model. It’s the honeycomb pattern. The more detailed it is, the more time it will take, because it will include more turns and movements to follow the pattern. If you want to print fast, you can adjust the infill pattern not to be that high.

4. Infill density

Density is what’s inside your print. An infill density of 0% means that the inside of the model is hallow. On the other hand, a 100% density infill means the inside will be solid. The density could depend on the purpose of the model.

For example, if you want a functional print, you should not sacrifice infill density to achieve the strength of the model. However, if it’s for aesthetics, it’s up to you to go all out for the density or skip it and focus on speed to reduce the print time.

5. Wall Thickness/shells

There is a relationship between the wall thickness or shells and density, so you should consider the other when adjusting either one. The good thing is getting a good ratio will help you achieve a great structure.

The thicker the wall, the longer the print till will be. To speed up the printing time, you can decrease the number of shells or perimeters of your prints in the settings.

You can play around with the print speed settings to find the perfect number, so you can maintain the strength while keeping it low to speed up the printing time.

6. Dynamic layer height/adaptive layer settings

It can improve the print speed and save you a decent amount of time compared to using the traditional layer method.

For example, 3D printing a chess piece without the adaptive layers setting takes 2 hours and 13 minutes.

However, using this featured in the speed settings could reduce the printing time by up to 30% down to 1 hour and 33 minutes.

7. Print multiple objects

To speed up the process, you can utilize all the space in the printer bed rather than doing one print at a time. To make it possible, use the center and arrange function in the slicer.

It will make a significant difference in the printing speed. However, this method might not apply to big prints.

Printing small objects will allow you to copy and paste the design multiple times on the print bed and print them all together simultaneously to speed up the entire process. Those who have tried this approach agreed that printing multiple objects could increase the speed.

8. Remove support

If your 3D object doesn’t need support, the printing time will be shorter. You can eliminate the need for support in many cases when you split the model in the right place and orient them properly.

So use the best orientation for your model, and you’ll definitely reduce the printing time. It is perfect if you want to increase printing speed.

9. Use a large nozzle when practical

Another great way to speed up the printing time is to use a large nozzle. However, doing so might not apply to all models and could reduce your print quality.

Using a large nozzle might not work when you are printing intricate models. But if your 3D objects are not as complex or intricate, go for a large nozzle to increase the printing speed.

There are many sizes of nozzles to choose from. Choose one that is most appropriate for your model.

• 4x 0.2mm nozzles • 4x 0.3mm nozzles • 36x 0.4mm nozzles • 4x 0.5mm nozzles • 4x 0.6mm nozzles • 4x 0.8mm nozzles • 4x 1mm nozzles • 10 cleaning needles

10. Increase layer height

The lower the layer height, the better the quality of your prints, but the longer the 3D printing time takes. If quality is not the top priority, you can increase the layer height and improve the printing speed.

You have to familiarize your printer and explore its print speed settings to get the optimal speed and enjoy quality outputs without the unnecessary long wait.

There are many ways to increase print speeds like using a large nozzle and reducing layer thickness, but always consider the results because when the printer works too fast, it might not achieve the quality you desire.

Also, always remember that the different 3D printing technologies offer different 3D printing speeds. SLA printers will always work faster, even when compared to the fastest FDM 3D printer.

The printing speed will affect the quality of your 3D printed object, so always make sure to strike the right balance, so you will achieve the strength, quality, and look you desire for your 3D project.

If you wish to learn more about 3D printing, better check our 3d printing home page .

• 3dprinterly.com/best-print-speed-settings-for-3d-printing/
• 3dprinterly.com/8-ways-how-to-speed-up-your-3d-printer-without-losing-quality/
• 3dsourced.com/3d-printers/fastest-3d-printer/
• rigid.ink/blogs/news/3d-printing-basics-how-to-get-the-best-results-with-pla-filament
• the3dprinterbee.com/3d-printer-speed/
• 3dsolved.com/3d-printing-speed-vs-quality/
• m3dzone.com/3d-printing-speed/
• all3dp.com/2/3d-printing-speed-optimal-settings/
• all3dp.com/3d-printing-speed/
• dyzedesign.com/2018/07/3d-print-speed-calculation-find-optimal-speed/
• thingiverse.com/thing:277394

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3D Printer Speed | Typical Values & Optimization

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The printing speed of 3D printers is an important criterion when buying a 3D printer. But also when optimizing and improving an existing 3D printer, the printing speed has a great influence on the quality and the printing time of an object.

The print speed of a 3D printer is the speed at which the material is applied to the print bed. The printing time of the object depends on the printing speed. It also has a great influence on the quality of the object. 

The goal in 3D printing is therefore always to achieve the highest possible printing speed without sacrificing quality.

In this article, you’ll learn everything you need to know about the printing speed when buying a 3D printer and how to optimize and improve the printing speed of an existing 3D printer. 

If you are looking for test objects for the print speed, you can find the best ones in this article .

Table of Contents:

• 1.1 How is the Speed of 3D Printers Specified?
• 1.2 What are Typical 3D Printer Speeds?
• 1.3 What Factors Influence the Printing Speed of a 3D Printer?
• 1.4 What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Fast Printing Speeds?
• 2.1 Calibrating the Print Speed
• 2.2 Improving the Mechanics of the 3D Printer
• 2.3 Using Klipper as Firmware
• 2.4 Use of other 3D Printing Materials
• 3.1 Increase the Travel Speed
• 3.2 Increasing the Layer Height
• 3.3 Increasing the Line Width
• 3.4 Increasing the Infill Printing Speed
• 3.5 Using the Combing Mode in Cura
• 4 Conclusion

3D Printer Speed as a Purchase Criterion

In addition to other properties of a 3D printer such as the print volume or the material of the print bed, the print speed is an important purchase criterion. It differs greatly between the various 3D printer models and depends on the design of the 3D printer. 

You can already read the print speed in the technical specifications before buying. However, it is not always specified uniformly. 

How is the Speed of 3D Printers Specified?

For FMD 3D printers, the print speed is specified in mm/s and describes the speed of the print head during the extrusion of filament. For resin 3D printers, it is specified in s/layer or mm/h and describes the speed at which the object is printed in the z-direction.

Here are a few examples of print speed specifications for different 3D printers:

• FDM 3D printer: “50 mm/s” means that the print head moves at 50 millimeters per second during printing.
• FDM 3D printer: “max. 180 mm/s (normal 50 mm/s)” means that the 3D printer can get to a maximum of 180 mm/s without regard to quality, and normal to good quality can be expected at 50 mm/s.
• Resin 3D printer: “2 s/layer” means that the 3D printer takes 2 seconds per layer. 
• Resin 3D printer: “30 mm/h” means that the 3D printer can print 30 millimeters per hour in the z-direction. 

The specifications are therefore sometimes very inconsistent. They can falsely promise you a faster printing speed. The correct interpretation of these specifications is therefore important to make the right purchase decision.

What are Typical 3D Printer Speeds?

Typical speeds of FDM 3D printers are between 40 and 60 mm/s for Cartesian 3D printers and over 100 mm/s for Delta 3D printers. Modern resin 3D printers achieve a print speed of about 2-3 seconds/layer, which corresponds to about 30-50 mm/h.

To illustrate these print speeds, I’ve created a few sample objects to give you an idea of how fast different objects can be printed.

• Technology: FDM Cartesian
• Printing speed: 50 mm/s
• Material: about 11 g filament
• Printing time: 1 hour and 12 minutes

• Material: about 102 g filament
• Printing time: 10 hours and 42 minutes

• Technology: FDM Delta
• Printing speed: 100 mm/s
• Material: about 122 g filament 
• Printing time: 8 hours and 42 minutes

• Technology: Resin
• Print speed: 3 s/layer
• Material: about 70 ml resin (about 77 g)
• Printing time: 7 hours and 30 minutes

What Factors Influence the Printing Speed of a 3D Printer?

Operating principle of the 3D printer: Delta vs. Cartesian for FDM 3D printers, for example. In Delta 3D printers (such as the FLSUN Super Racer ), the print head is lightweight and moved via three arms rather than rigid rails with heavy weight. 

This allows a much higher printing speed to be achieved before vibrations occur that negatively affect the quality of the printed object. 

Stability of the 3D printer: At high speeds, vibrations can occur when the 3D printer moves. The better the stability of the 3D printer, the higher the printing speeds can be set before disruptive vibrations occur. 

For example, in very large or accurate Cartesian 3D printers, a stepper motor is installed on both sides of the z-axis. This improves positional accuracy and reduces susceptibility to vibration. This is also called “double z-axis”. 

Material used: Different filaments may have different print speed requirements. For example, flexible filaments such as TPU may print better at lower print speeds. 

For resin 3D printers, the type of resin is critical to how long it needs to cure . 

Print head design of FDM 3D printers: There are two different print head designs for FDM 3D printers. 

With a Bowden extruder , the extruder sits far away from the nozzle on the frame of the 3D printer and pushes the filament through a PTFE tube to the print head. This makes the print head very light and higher print speeds can be achieved.

With a direct drive extruder, the extruder sits in the print head, increasing its weight. The increased weight causes disturbing vibrations at lower speeds than with lighter print heads. 

Layer height: When considering the print speed, it is important to note the influence of the layer height. For FDM 3D printers, the print speed specification is not coupled with the layer height. 

The layer height only influences the print duration . The individual layers are nevertheless printed at the same printing speed. 

However, for resin 3D printers, the print speed is often coupled with the layer height. With specifications such as “30 mm/h”, the print speed per layer is multiplied by the layer height, which is not specified. 

The information about how long a layer has to be exposed or how strong the illumination is therefore helps you much more to compare different resin 3D printers. Whether you set the layer height to 0.01 mm or 0.1 mm has (almost) no influence on the printing speed, only on the printing duration. 

What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of Fast Printing Speeds?

The print speed influences the print duration and the print quality in 3D printing. A low speed increases the print duration and improves the print quality. A high speed reduces the print duration and deteriorates the quality. 

So, the advantage of a fast print speed is that it reduces the print duration. To show how much the print speed affects the print duration for FDM 3D printers, I sliced the same object at different print speeds. 

So, as you can see from the data, a higher print speed definitely pays off up to a point. However, there is a point beyond which a higher print speed improves the print duration only slightly. 

Increasing the printing speed from 50 to 100 mm/s almost halves the printing time. An increase from 100 to 200 mm/s only brings an improvement of about 20%. 

Considering the ever-increasing likelihood of print errors and ever-decreasing surface quality, it is often not practical to increase the print speed above a certain value. In general, the higher the print speed is set, the worse the print quality becomes.

There is therefore a sweet spot for each (FDM) 3D printer where good print quality can be achieved at the highest possible print speed . 

Tip: Even if you want to set the print speed as high as possible without producing print errors, you should greatly reduce the print speed for the first layer. Especially if you have problems with print bed adhesion , values between 5 and 10 mm/s will help to create a good print bed adhesion. 

Improving the Speed of 3D Printers

With resin in 3D printers, the printing speed is coupled to the light exposure system. Improving the print speed is therefore usually not possible. With FDM 3D printers, however, there are many ways to improve the speed. 

Calibrating the Print Speed

To determine the highest possible print speed while still maintaining good print quality of a 3D printer, calibration is necessary. Calibration objects for the print speed provoke print errors that can occur at high speeds ( ringing/ghosting ). 

If the print head of the 3D printer moves too fast, vibrations occur that affect the object. In addition, the general positioning accuracy is lower, especially when changing the direction of movement. 

The vibrations distort details on the surface and copy them horizontally in a kind of oscillation. In addition, corners are inaccurately executed and typically widened due to the high speed of the print head. 

I like to use a cube with letters or holes on the sides for this type of calibration. The 3DBenchy is also great for this.

When calibrating the print speed with such objects, the goal is to generate as few of these print errors as possible. However, there is no hard limit from which the print errors appear and before which they do not. Threshold is very vague and you have to decide for yourself when these print errors are okay for you.

In the end, the application of the object is decisive. If the object has a decorative use, the quality should be as good as possible and the speed thus relatively slow. But with a doorstop for example, these printing errors are irrelevant and you can set the printing speed very high. 

Improving the Mechanics of the 3D Printer

To increase the printing speed of an FDM 3D printer, components of the mechanics can be improved. These include, in particular, higher-quality linear guides* or rods* .

Such upgrades can improve the mobility of the print head. This improves positioning accuracy, resulting in better production of corners and small details at higher print speeds. 

However, faster stepper motors* can also be installed. Occasionally, the speed of a 3D printer is limited by the speed of these motors. If the rest of the design is strong enough to support higher print speeds, this is a useful upgrade to improve the printing speed. 

Using Klipper as Firmware

To improve the print speed of an FDM 3D printer, Klipper can be used as firmware. With this firmware, data from an accelerometer on the print head can be used to significantly increase the print speed without producing print errors. 

The main factor limiting the printing speed is the vibrations that occur in the print head. The faster the print head changes its direction of movement, the stronger these vibrations become. Print errors caused by such vibrations therefore become more severe the higher the print speed.

The acceleration sensor is used to measure the vibrations in the print head. From the data obtained, Klipper can control the movements of the printer so that they generate as little vibration as possible.

I have often worked with Klipper, but one of the most impressive examples was when I used the Creality Sonic Pad on the Ender 3 V2 . The print quality I achieved at 50 mm/s without Klipper, I could still achieve at 250 mm/s with Klipper!

So, it’s not always just hardware improvements that can improve print speed, firmware has a big impact on that too. 

Use of other 3D Printing Materials

For FDM 3D printers, selecting high-quality filaments can increase print speed. Print errors occur less frequently with such filaments. With resin 3D printers, the various resins sometimes differ greatly in their curing time . 

In addition, the transparency of the resin used has a major influence on the curing time. Transparent resins take much longer to cure than a matte and black resin. The ability to absorb the light and thus the energy for curing is much better with dark resins, which means that they cure faster. 

Improving the Printing Time of a 3D Printer 

The printing time of an FDM 3D print is not only influenced by the pure printing speed. Several other factors also play a role in how long an object takes to print. 

Increase the Travel Speed

The travel speed of an FDM 3D printer determines the speed of extrusionless movements. Increasing the travel speed reduces the printing time. In this case, the travel speed is often more than twice the printing speed. 

However, the travel speed must also not be set too high, otherwise typical printing errors such as ringing or ghosting can occur. 

In extreme cases, a layer shift can also occur. Then the speed is so high that the toothed belts slip or the object slips. 

Increasing the Layer Height

If the surface finish is secondary for an FDM print, thicker layers massively reduce the print duration.

To demonstrate the influence of layer height, I sliced the same object with different layer heights in Cura. The print time decreases rapidly as the layers get higher. Therefore, particularly fine 3D prints take an extremely long time to print. 

In this article you will learn which layer heights you can implement with your nozzle. 

Increasing the Line Width

If the line width of a 3D print is increased, the printing time is reduced. The same amount of material is then printed in less time.

The line width behaves similarly to the layer height in reducing the print duration. The more filament is extruded at once, the faster the print is finished. 

How wide the lines can be is determined by the diameter of the nozzle. In this article you will learn about the dependency between the diameter of the nozzle and the line width. 

Increasing the Infill Printing Speed

Increasing the printing speed inside the object reduces the printing time. The infill, i.e. the material inside, is hidden, making the print quality there irrelevant. 

In many standard profiles of 3D printers, the print speed of the infill is set as high as the normal print speed. Here you have great potential to save time when printing. 

Since the print quality inside the object is irrelevant, you can start here with 150% of the normal print speed and observe the effects. 

Using the Combing Mode in Cura

The Combing mode in Cura determines the paths of the print head during extrusionless travel movements. Depending on the geometry of the object, up to 25% of the printing time can be saved by optimizing these movements.

If you can’t find the Combing mode in Cura, the first thing you need to do is make the setting visible. You can activate or deactivate the visibility of the individual settings via the menu. 

I always activate all settings, even if this can be a bit confusing at the beginning. However, you can then also quickly find certain settings via the search bar. 

You can adjust the settings so that the print head either travels only over infill areas of the object, over no surfaces already printed, or avoids only the outer skin. 

If you would like to learn more about this mode in Cura, you should check out this article . 

The speed of a 3D printer has a great influence on the final result. In order for the result to be of high quality, the speed must not be too high so that no printing errors appear.

To delay the threshold at which such printing errors can occur, there are various improvements you can make to the printer itself and its firmware.

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Travel Speed For Print Head in 3D Printing

In 3D printing technology, managing travel speed for print head is crucial for achieving high-quality prints. When the print head travels, it can sometimes leave behind strings of filament , a phenomenon known as stringing. This can affect the overall quality and look of the 3D-printed object.

So here in this article, we will cover everything about Travel Speed and its recommended settings.

Now, let’s talk about travel speed first.

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What is Travel Speed in 3D Printing?

What is retraction in 3d printing, travel speed setting in cura 3d slicer:, recommended travel speed in cura:, travel speed faq (frequently asked questions):.

The travel speed in 3D printing is a crucial aspect that often goes unnoticed. It refers to the speed at which the print head moves when not extruding any material. This is a non-print move, meaning the printer is transitioning from one area of the design to another without laying down any filament .

The travel speed can significantly impact the quality of your 3D print. If set too high, it can lead to stringing or oozing, as the filament may not have enough time to cool and solidify before the print head moves. On the other hand, if the travel speed is too low, it can result in a longer print time and potential defects in the print due to prolonged heat exposure.

Let’s have a look at what’s retraction. Another very important term to understand.

Retraction is a feature that pulls the filament back from the nozzle and moves it to a new location. This process helps to prevent oozing or stringing, which are common issues in 3D printing where excess filament leaks out of the nozzle and creates unwanted lines or blobs on the print. By using retraction, you can ensure a cleaner and more precise print.

Travel settings in Cura refer to the configuration options that control the movement of the print head during non-printing phases, such as moving between print layers or during retraction. These settings can significantly impact the quality of your 3D prints and help prevent issues like stringing and layer separation.

In Cura, there are several settings related to travel speed that you can adjust to optimize your 3D prints. Let’s understand each travel settings one by one.

1. Combing Mode:

Let’s talk about “Combing Mode.” This setting is like your GPS, guiding the print head’s movement within the parts. It has three options: Off, All, and Not in Skin. When it’s off, the print head moves in straight lines, regardless of the model’s boundaries. The ‘All’ option ensures the print head stays within the model’s boundaries, reducing the risk of stringing. ‘Not in Skin’ is a balance between the two, avoiding visible parts of the print (the skin) but moving freely within infill areas.

2. Max Comb Distance with No Retract:

Max Comb Distance with No Retract is a feature in Cura that sets the maximum distance the print head can travel without retraction. It’s a balancing act between print quality and speed, optimising your 3D printing process.

3. Retract Before Outer Wall:

Retract Before Outer Wall setting pulls back the filament before the printer starts working on the outer wall. This helps to reduce any potential oozing and results in a cleaner, more precise print.

4. Avoid Printed Part When Travelling:

Avoid Printed Parts When Travelling ensure the print head maneuvers around already printed sections, minimizing the risk of damage or displacement.

5. Retraction Setting:

It pulls the filament back when the print head moves between parts, reducing stringing. You can adjust the retraction distance (how far the filament is pulled back) and retraction speed (how fast it’s pulled back).

6. Retraction Minimum Travel:

Retraction Minimum Travel setting determines the minimum distance the print head should travel before a retraction is triggered. This helps to reduce stringing and improve print quality.

7. Maximum Retraction Count:

This setting limits the number of times the filament can retract within a specified distance, helping to prevent filament grinding and other issues.

8. Retraction Prime Speed:

Retraction Prime Speed controls the speed at which the filament is pushed back after a retraction, ensuring smooth and precise printing.

9. Z Hop Setting:

When enabled, the print head lifts slightly when it travels, reducing the chance of it knocking into and damaging the print.

10. Z Hop When Retracted: 

Z Hop When Retracted is a 3D printing setting that slightly lifts the print head during retraction, reducing the risk of scraping or damaging the print.

11. Z Hop Only Over Printed Part:

Z Hop Only Over Printed Parts ensures the print head only lifts (or ‘hops’) when moving over already printed areas.

12. Z Hop Height:

Z Hop Height dictates the vertical distance the print head lifts during a Z hop, optimising print quality.

Now, onto the recommended settings. Generally, a good starting point for your travel speed in Cura is around 100 mm/s. This moderate speed allows for efficient printing without compromising on quality.

However, this isn’t a one-size-fits-all solution. Depending on your printer’s capabilities and the complexity of the model you’re printing, you might need to adjust this speed.

If you’re noticing stringing or oozing in your prints, it could be a sign that your travel speed is too slow. In this case, try gradually increasing the speed. On the other hand, if your printer is struggling to keep up or the movements seem jerky, you might need to reduce the travel speed.

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What Is a Good 3D Printing Speed?

What 3D printing speed settings will you use to print a 3D model that stands out? What if you mess up your project by using faster or slower speed settings?

These are some of the questions people have when deciding on a printing speed. 3D printing technology uses additive manufacturing processes, making it essential to mind the amount of material you deposit on the printer bed.

3D printing speeds determine how much filament your printer’s extruder will deposit on the 3D printer bed . To achieve an exquisite 3D model, you must set the printing speed according to the category of 3D printers you use.

For slow 3D printers, use 40mm per second to 80mm per second 3D printing speeds. Mid-speed printers work best with 100 mm per second printing speeds, while those who want to print faster use 150mm per second and above in fast-speed 3D printers. 

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How Fast Can 3D Printers Print?

3d printer settings, how to set the printing speed, the type of 3d printing material, 3d printer type, what’s our take.

Since printing speeds control the flow rate, let us understand these 3D printing speeds better with this article.

What Is the Best Print Speed for 3D Desktop Printers?

Before we dive into the best print speed to use in desktop printers, it would help you first understand that print speed is a part of speed settings. For this reason, you have to consider how you set the speed of the 3D printer.

Your printer’s print speed regulates how fast your extruder motors move to extrude either more or less material. If you want to reduce your printing time, adjusting the printing speed will help you. As much as faster printing speeds minimize print time, they affect the quality of your 3D prints .

To avoid damaging extra-ordinary models in the making, 3D printer manufacturers have developed speed regulations. These regulations are not limited to desktop printers; even large 3D printers follow speed settings regulations.

Both fast and slow print speed settings have pros and cons. For instance, if you are creating a 3D-printed object at a slow print speed, you risk deforming it. This is because the nozzle and plastic are too close to each other for prolonged durations.

High 3D printing speed settings, on the other hand, expose your 3D printers to overheating problems. The cooling system will not cool the extruder fast enough; under extrusion will occur, creating weaker layer adhesion.

The bottom line in achieving desirable 3D printed object quality is mastering print speed settings. Here is how you go about deciding the best 3D printer settings for your printing process.

• First, consider the model’s outer wall. How fast do you want the exterior of your model to be printed? If your priority is on surface quality, it will help if you reduce the print speed. In simple terms, use lower print speed settings for more satisfactory surface quality.
• The second factor to consider is the interior walls’ printing speed. Here, make sure you use the same print speed as the one you use in making the overall model. The 3D printer speed here needs to reduce your printing time without lowering the 3D print strength.
• Next, consider the infill printing speed. It needs to also reduce printing time without compromising your model’s stability.
• The last speed setting to consider is how fast you want your 3D printed objects’ bottom and top layers to be printed. If you want a better surface quality, use a slightly lower 3D print speed.

Be sure to also work on achieving optimal retraction settings if you want high-quality 3D prints. Retraction speed settings are responsible for determining the travel speed at which your 3D printer will pull the filament back before any travel moves.

When you set retraction speed too low, your 3D print will have blobs that are not appealing to the eye. Using too high refraction speeds, on the other hand, results in grinding filaments and eventually unpleasant lumps on the 3D model.

What is a Good Print Speed For PLA?

Whenever you make 3D prints using plastic filaments like PLA or PLA+ , it is best to use print speeds of between 30mm and 90mm per second. Manufacturers who want better results use printing speeds that are on the lower end.

It is important to note that there are factors that influence the print speed you use. The amount of plastic you extrude also has a notable impact on the print speed. Similarly, 3D printing layer thickness also affects printing speed.

How much plastic filament you will extrude to make a part’s outline is shown through shell settings .

Increasing shell settings in additive manufacturing means more filament will be extruded. As a result, the line width of your 3D print will increase. The printing process will end up consuming more printing time.

If you have a more significant infill percentage to print, your printing speed will be affected. This is because the infill has a predetermined pattern. Printing that shape is what affects the printing speed.

Other than the pattern, infill density also comes to play, affecting your printing time. If the object you are printing has a higher infill density, be ready to spend more time printing. The part or parts you create will be stronger than those created using other manufacturing processes on the upside.

Layer height is another crucial determinant of printing speed. When you are printing an object with a more significant layer height, you will extrude more filament at a time. The result will be increased layer thickness and faster printing speeds.

If the nozzle size is large, more filament will be extruded when printing each layer. You will therefore need to have a high printing speed setting to avoid over extruding.

If you want to set the printing speed, you will need to launch the slicer software on your PC ( for example Cura ). Locate the basic tab on your slicer software and click on print speed.

For people using older versions, locating the print speed settings demand that you switch to advanced mode. You will then open your slicer software’s speed tab, where you will access print speed settings.

When you alter any setting on the slicing software, including the 3D printing speed setting, the software will recalculate the time required to complete the printing process.

You don’t have to be worried about waiting longer than estimated since the software calculates a print duration that is identical to real-world time.

Does Print Speed Affect Quality?

Without beating around the bush, yes. Print speed affects the quality of your 3D prints. If you use a lower speed to create a 3D model, you will achieve better quality than when you use a higher speed. This, however, occurs when your printer is not operating in optimal conditions.

Nonetheless, there is an argument that printing speed does not necessarily have to impact the print’s quality. This is because there are a few other factors that directly impact 3D printing speed without compromising the print’s quality.

If you are using high-quality support material, you will print faster since you don’t have to keep unclogging the nozzle when the support material gets stuck. Once you are done printing the model, you will remove the material without reducing the print quality.

Printing polymer also comes in different types. When used at the same speed, each of these polymer types will give 3D models of other qualities. Print speed settings do not create the difference; the difference in filament texture creates it.

You might like: Types of 3D Printers

Your 3D printer types affect the quality of the 3D prints you will get without necessarily being influenced by speed. Look at this case from this perspective; you have a high-quality 3D printer. You set it to a high-speed setting and get first-class quality 3D prints.

When you use a 3D printer of lower quality at the same print speed, the quality of the model you get will be lower. Consequently, the price of one of the first-class models will be more than the second model’s price.

Layer heights and line width affect the speed you print 3D objects at, increasing the quality and time consumed to manufacture any 3D parts.

When deciding the best 3D printing speed to use , it will help if you account for all aspects, including printer type, 3D printer’s nozzle size, line width, and other factors discussed in this article.

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3D Printing Speed: How to Get the Best Setting for PLA?

3d printing speed: how to get the best setting for pla.

If you are new to 3d printing, maybe you note that it is hard to balance the printing speed and quality.

When you use a faster printing speed, the quality of 3d print will not so good. Either, slow speed means that you need to spend much more time. In this post, we will explain the details of 3d printing speed and how to get the best setting for PLA .

Contents(show)

What is Speed Setting in 3d printer?

When we talk about the 3d printing speed, most of us think that it is the moving speed of the extruder. They move around from one layer to another. The faster or slower decide the printing time for the part. Actually, it’s not.

To get good quality print, we need to set the best setting for speed. The speed contains so many parts; extruder speed is just one of the most speed types.

Print Speed

3D print speed is the primary speed setting that will take effects on 3d prints. As the name “print speed” implies, it determines the speed at which your printer motors move. And these motors comprise the extruder motors and the X and Y axis motors. Note that the outcome of your printing mainly depends on the selected print speed.

Now let’s break down the complexity of the print speed. The setting of the print speed has four sub-settings, which are;

• Infill speed : The print speed reduces the printing duration with quality printing strength.
• Outer wall shell speed : It reduces slightly to boost the quality of the surface of the print.
• Inner wall shell speed : It works to reduce the time spent on printing while sustaining the strength of the print.
• Top/Bottom speed : Generally, it is slightly reduced to boost the prints’ surface quality.

Travel Speed

Travel speed is the speed rate of the 3D printer’s print head when it is not extruding plastic. Increasing the travel speed can drastically reduce the duration used in printing. But too much increase of the travel speed can result in a misaligned layer of the model or print failure.

Retraction speed

Shell, infill, and layer height.

3d printer speed not only decides by “speed” alone and is also affected by the extruding thickness and plastic of each layer. So, let me briefly tell you some general information about how each of these concerns the speed rate of your print.

1. Shell thickness: In this setting, the extruded plastic use to forming the outlines of the 3D model. An increase in the shell thickness will not only result in increased consistency and strength. But also cause a notable increase in the print duration.

2. Infill: This describes the inner structure of the 3d model. The density of this internal structure has a remarkable effect on the print speed. Higher infill density will lead to higher strength and longer print time.

3. Layer Height: This influences how quickly your print will finish. The higher your layer height, the thicker each layer of your 3D prints and the shorter the print duration. Adjust your layer based on the required print resolution.

How Do I Get the Perfect Print Speed Settings?

The best way to get the perfect print speed of your 3D printer is by starting it at the default speed setting. That’s 60 mm/s and then increasing it by five mm/s. These are settings that you arrived at after consistent trial and error on the test prints. The perfect print speed setting entirely depends on the type of print you are settling to go for.

If your print speed is set to a very high speed, it may result in overheating due to insufficient cooling. If your print speed is set at a low rate, it may result in the deformation of the prints. This deformation is a result of the extended setting of the nozzle on the plastics. Hence, always consider the print’s temperature and the thickness of your filament.

The materials also play a critical role in the perfection of your print speed. Some materials enable you to in an instant and get incredible quality.

What is a Good Print Speed for PLA?

A good print speed for PLA is a spot that gives it a good balance of print quality and speed. And this falls between 40-60 mm/s range. Based on your 3D printer setup, type, and stability. Your PLA speed rate can reach 100 mm/s and above easily. When compared to Cartesian, Delta 3D printers are going to permit higher speeds.

I’d recommend sticking to this range. But there are instances where using higher print speed and the results were fantastic. The low maintenance nature of PLA allows increased speed without risking the quality as well. But don’t over increase the speed.

Does print speed reduce print quality?

There have been several numbers of controversies on the effects of speed on the quality of a print. Generally, when you are yet to optimize your printer, lower rates make 3d printers better quality. But a high speed has a more negligible effect when you have fully optimized your 3D printer. This optimization is a result of knowing how to set the printer’s settings. That will directly affect 3D printing speed without compromising the print’s quality.

If you use lower infill settings, will your print strength be reduced? The less infill you use, the less strength of your prints. Like I have said earlier in this post. When the print speed is too high, it will result in print failure and most likely render the print useless.

When you have, using the recommended 5mm/s increment for adjusting it. It will be much easier for you to detect the best speed rate for your printer with excellent quality.

Printing Speed Calculator

The printing speed calculator is a digital calculator available on the Internet. It is designed to solve 3D printing speed settings and related challenges, which are printer configuration or finding the best parameters for their desired speed.

This calculator helps you find the maximum printing speed that you can reach with the current structure of your 3d printer. Enter your layer height, nozzle size, line width, and choose the material you will be printing.

How Fast Does a 3D Printer Print?

It depends on the material you are printing. Like how large the part is, what orientation it is in, the alignment of your print object, and the internal support style. Materials-wise, the weaker and cheaper materials you use, the faster it will get the print done. PLA is usually quicker to print but is not as heat resistant or tough as ABS.

Although some things are so small that the printer can get it done in a couple of minutes, some other prints can take a couple of days to print. So one of the most significant factors is time. More material = more time.

Orientation can also have a significant effect on it. The more vertical layers you have, the longer the print will take. How fast your printers print also depends on the internal support. What you are making matters, but for you to decide. It highly depends on what you need or wants in terms of speed versus strength.

And if it sometimes has to go fast, the quality can easily compromise. You can get better results in 3D printing at lower speeds. But you will get the best result when it is optimized.

Suppose you use the correct printing speed and suitable materials. 3D print can be efficient and effective. There are no specific settings to get the best result. It differs from different types of material and printers.

You should print test prints inconsistently. It is the only method to get the best setting.

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3D Print Speed vs Quality; Best Settings!

We all want to get the best out of our 3D printed models, both in terms of quality and speed. The problem is most of the time quality and speed don’t go hand in hand and finding the sweet spot between quality and speed will take some trial and error for every printer and filament type.

In this article, I will talk about how much impact print speed has on print quality, the most common problems, and how to find the best settings.

Does Printing Speed affect the Print’s Quality?

Why does it affect printing quality, printing speed, retraction speed, travel speed, print speed and print duration, weak layer adhesion, layer shifting, weak infill, under-extrusion, use a larger nozzle, print with a thicker layer height, lower the infill percentage and the number of shells, does filament type affect the print speed, how fast can a 3d printer print, ender 3 (pro and v2) speed settings, check out our recommended products section.

More often than not the print speed has a significant impact on print quality. As a rule of thumb, slow print speeds produce better quality prints. Achieving fast printing times without losing printing quality is possible, but that will depend on your 3D printer’s type and the quality of the materials used.

The degree to which printing speed affects your print’s quality will be tied to the machine’s ability to handle that given speed. Most consumer-grade 3D printers are not made with fast printing times in mind. These machines are usually made with cheap materials to make them affordable to everyone. As you increase printing speed these design and material deficiencies are more noticeable.

Fast movements from the extruder generate a significant amount of vibrations and the results are poor quality prints. Bowden setups have less weight on the extruder thus are more stable and mitigate this issue. A good quality 3D printer with a Bowden setup can achieve fast printing speeds without losing quality.

Besides the 3D printer’s quality, we need to consider the filaments used to print. Even if the 3D printer can handle a given printing speed, the filament can only melt so fast thus limiting the extrusion flow rates. Different types of filament printed at the same speed yield disparate results as they possess different physical and chemical properties.

Best Speed Settings for 3D Printing

In 3D printing, the best settings vary for every maker as optimal settings depend on many factors such as the 3D printer model, filament, and environmental conditions.

Printing speed controls how fast the nozzle moves across the build plate while printing. Usually, slow printing speeds produce better quality results as high speeds can lead to ringing and under-extrusion issues. To find out the best print speed settings for your machine download this  Speed Test Tower .

In the link, you will find all the instructions on how to set up the  Speed Test Tower  print. Basically, this test increases print speed as the tower moves up so you can see the difference in print quality at a certain speed and figure out the best setting for your 3D printer.

Retraction speed determines how fast the printer retracts the filament through the nozzle while changing the printing position. This is done to avoid filament leaks. If the retraction speed is set too low, you will see stringing and blobs on your models. On the other hand, if the retraction speed is set too high the drive gears that feed the filament might damage the filament and mess with the feed flow.

To find out the proper retraction speed settings for your printer download this  Retraction Test . Print a few tests, starting with a retraction speed of 25mm/s, and increase it by 5mm/s as long as you see good results. The speed that yields the cleanest result should be your optimal retraction speed.

Travel speed is the speed at which the nozzle moves while it is not extruding the filament. If the travel speed is set too high the printhead movements can generate some serious vibrations which lead to ringing or even layer shifting issues.

To get the optimal travel speed settings for your printer download this  Test   (the same model used to test retraction speed). For the first print, use 100mm/s travel speed and if the surface looks good you can repeat the print increasing travel speed by 5mm/s. You can repeat the process until you see defects on the surface.

High printing speeds can drastically decrease the print duration. Using Cura’s  Draft  profile, I sliced a Benchy using different printing speeds to see how much the printing duration decreases. These are the results:

As you can see, the first speed increments are the ones that have a higher impact on reducing print duration. This happens because depending on the overall shape and size of the printed object the extruder might not be able to reach these higher speeds.

Problems that arise when printing too fast

Even if the 3D printer can handle a high print speed the filament still needs time to properly bond. As the filament is laid down, it needs to stick to the print bed and fuse with the other layers to maintain the desired shape. If the printer is going too fast, the filament does not have the time to create a strong bond resulting in weak layer adhesion.

When printing at a high speed there is a chance the X, Y, Z axis motors fail due to the excess stress and misplace a layer. This happens because the motors are being forced to move at a higher speed than they can handle. Layer shifting can happen gradually or as one big displacement.

If we are printing too fast the extruder might not be able to keep up and end up extruding less filament than the software thinks it is extruding. This under-extrusion usually produces a weak infill and thus weakens the overall 3D-printed object structure as it can easily break. We can identify this issue if we see the layers are too thin and the infill is stringy.

When the printer is moving too fast and needs to make a sudden change in direction, like in a sharp corner, the inertia of the extruder can cause a considerable amount of vibrations which cause the ringing. Ringing is a visible defect of an unwanted pattern of lines on the surface of the 3D-printed object.

High printing speed can decrease bridging quality. Whenever a print needs to connect two columns with a suspended filament extrusion (bridging), the filament needs time to stick to the previous layer. If the extruder is moving too fast the filament will not be able to adhere in time to bridge a gap.

Other ways of achieving faster Print Times

With a large diameter nozzle, you sacrifice detail quality in exchange for decreasing print duration as a larger nozzle allows more filament to be extruded at once.

The thicker the layer height of your 3D printed object is the fewer layers need to be printed to finish your print. The downside to thicker layer heights is the loss of resolution in your model.

Lowering infill percentage and the number of shells reduces the overall strength of a 3D printed object. As we decrease these settings the amount of extruded material is reduced thus we get faster print times.

The type of filament used for printing plays an important role in print speed. The physical and chemical properties vary for every kind of filament and thus the recommended print speeds for each one of them.

These are good printing speeds for some of the most commonly used filaments:

Keep in mind that you should always check your filament spool for the best speed settings as these settings may change depending on the manufacturer.

As I said previously, the maximum speed that a 3D printer can achieve depends on the quality of its components. For most common consumer-grade FDM printers the average print speed is around 40mm/s to 80mm/s while some better ones are able to achieve 100mm/s to 150mm/s.

I would like to make a special mention of the VORON project. This is a non-commercial project which handles users the opportunity to build their own printer. The plans are free open-source and these wonderfully engineered machines can achieve impressive print speeds. The build documentation is great and you can download the assembly manual from their  website .

Since the Ender 3 is such a popular printer I decided to run a couple speed tests as well as some benchys and calibration cubes at different speeds on it to find out how fast I could print reliably without compromising on quality too much.

Here’s how to the prints turned out (my phone’s camera isn’t the best at detecting ringing and ghosting, so you may have to take my word as far as which one turned out better):

Speed test:

While it may not be as obvious in the image, at 200mm/s there was absolutely no ghosting going on and 40mm/s was very similar. However, from 60mm/s onwards you can clearly see more ghosting.

When looking at the same print from the sides, the height where it was printed at 20mm/s and 40mm/s is a bit smoother than all the other parts as well.

Benchy test:

While it may not be very apparent on this image, the Benchy printed at 90mm/s had a bit more ghosting present and some small bulging layer lines, but the difference wasn’t as noticeable as I expected.

We created a recommended products section that will allow you to remove the guesswork and reduce the time spent researching what printer, filament, or upgrades to get, since we know that this can be a very daunting task and which generally leads to a lot of confusion.

We have selected just a handful of 3D printers that we consider to be good for beginners as well as intermediates, and even experts, making the decision easier, and the filaments, as well as the upgrades listed, were all tested by us and carefully selected, so you know that whichever one you choose will work as intended.

About The Author

Facundo Arceo

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11 Tips To Increase 3D Printing Speed & Save More Time

11 tips to increase 3d printing speed, 1. increase speed settings value, 2. higher temperature settings, 3. larger layer height.

4. Right Infill Settings

Infill Pattern : There are many infill patterns that you can use with their own advantages and disadvantages. Some patterns provide more strength in structure and some patterns require fewer movements compared with other patterns. One of the best infill patterns is rectilinear patterns which would save up to 25% of printing time depending on the 3D models.

5. Lower Wall Thickness/Shells

6. Removing or Reducing Supports

7. Choose Right Adhesion Assistants

8. Produce Several Prints in The Same Batch to Increase 3D Printing Speed

9. Higher Travel Speed

10. use a large nozzle, 11. use wider extrusion line width.

Speed VS Quality: Which Is More Important?

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3D Printer Retraction Settings 101: Speed & Distance

Retraction is one of the most useful slicer settings for a 3D printer. It controls how much filament is pulled back after a travel move, and it’s the #1 setting for eliminating retraction and over-extrusion on 3D prints .

There are a few different retraction settings worth taking a look at in your 3D slicer. The two most important ones are the retraction distance and retraction speed , which I suggest setting to 5 mm and 45 mm/s , respectively. I also strongly suggest activating the Z Hop When Retracted feature in your slicer program .

That said, you should also check out the minimum extrusion distance window, maximum retraction count, Combing Mode, and nozzle temperature settings as both also heavily affect the frequency of stringing on 3D printed models.

Want to learn about other best retraction settings? 

Keep reading!

Table of Contents

What is Retraction?

Why use retraction, retraction distance, retraction speed, maximum retraction count, minimum extrusion distance window, z hop when retracted, combing mode, nozzle temperature, travel speed, how to test retraction settings.

If you’ve never heard the term “retraction”, it’s a process on 3D printers that involves the extruder pulling back filament from the hot end .

This is done to relieve the hot end of built-up pressure that happens due to the continuous flow of filament. This pressure can cause the melted filament to flow out the nozzle even when the extruder isn’t active, leaving marks of over-extrusion on your prints (e.g. stringing).

Retraction prevents this from happening by equalizing the hot end pressure through retracting (sucking back) filament from the hot end.

Retraction moves are the specific instances where the extruder pulls back the filament. These usually happen at each layer change and when the printhead is moving from one side of a print to another, like if you were 3D printing two models on the same print bed.

You should use retraction to prevent over-extrusion, especially in the form of stringing, from popping up on your prints.

For reference, over-extrusion, as the name suggests, is a printing problem where too much filament is extruded. Stringing is one way over extrusion can take its shape on a 3D printer, and this specific problem occurs when small whisps (“strings”) of melted filament attach to the exterior of your printed model. It makes your 3D print not only look bad but also a lot less dimensionally accurate.

Check out our article on how to fix stringing issues in your 3D printer here .

Additionally, using retraction in your 3D slicer settings helps prevent other forms of over-extrusion, such as zits and blobs, which can appear on the exterior of your prints.

Slicer Settings

Now that you know what retraction is and why you should use it, you’re probably wondering how you can control this feature for your 3D printer. In the mini sections below, I’ve gone over the most important slicer settings related to retraction, and I provided recommendations for each setting too!

The most important setting for retraction is the retraction distance. This setting controls how much filament is pulled back for each retraction move.

The higher this value, the more effective each retraction move will be. However, too long of a retraction distance can also cause a hot end jam, so be careful.

For Bowden extruder printers, such as the Ender 3 (Pro/V2), I suggest going with a retraction distance of 5 mm, adjusting in increments of 0.2 mm until you hit 3 or 6 mm. If you’ve reached these values and still are having issues, then it might be time to try using another setting.

And, for direct drive printers , a retraction distance between 1.5 and 2.5 mm should work perfectly. You can also adjust it in increments of 0.2 mm.

The second most important retraction setting is the retraction speed, which controls how fast the extruder moves for each retraction move.

Similar to the distance, the higher the value of the retraction speed settings, the more effective each retraction move. However, going too high might cause issues like jamming.

I suggest using a retraction speed of 40-50 mm/s . I like to use a retraction speed set to the same value as my print speed, as this is considered best practice for the extruder motor (it won’t overheat).

The Maximum Retraction Count is the maximum number of retractions that your 3D printer will allow to occur in the Minimum Extrusion Distance Window, which we’ll get to next. A value of 100 should work great, but you can increase it for 3D printing miniatures.

The Minimum Extrusion Distance Window is a setting that controls the space in which the Maximum Retraction Count is enforced. In other words, if this value is set to 10 mm and the Max Retraction Count is set to 5, then a total of 5 retraction moves will be allowed to occur for every 10 mm of filament extruded.

I suggest setting this value to the same as your Retraction Distance. So, in my case, that would be 5.2 mm .

Finally, we have the Z Hop When Retracted setting, which is a boolean feature, meaning it can either be turned on or turned off (no numeric value).

When Z Hop When Retracted is activated, the printer will move the nozzle (printhead) up along the Z-axis every time a retraction occurs. This can make the retractions more effective because the nozzle will physically separate from the layer it’s printing before moving. I suggest turning this setting on!

Other Important Settings

There are also a few other settings that are indirectly related to stringing and are worth taking a look at. I’ve briefly gone over three in the sections below.

The combing mode is a slicer setting (in Cura) that defines the rules for how the printhead should move. There are a few options, each with different movement rules.

I suggest setting the combing mode to either “Within Infill” or “Not In Skin” . These modes make the printhead move inside the printing perimeter to prevent stringing and other forms of over-extrusion from occurring on the exterior of your 3D print.

The nozzle temperature is also heavily correlated with over-extrusion and stringing on prints. The higher the temperature of the nozzle, the faster filament will melt and the more easily it will flow out of the nozzle. As such, high nozzle temps can lead to over-extrusion, so consider lowering yours on top of adjusting some retraction settings if you’re dealing with stringing.

The travel speed in your slicer is a setting that controls how fast the printhead moves when it’s not extruding filament (traveling). A higher travel speed will give the filament less time to melt and flow out of the nozzle, thus reducing stringing. As such, I suggest increasing your travel speed if you’re having issues.

You can test your refraction settings by printing a test model specific for stringing, such as the following:

Printing these models will give you a good visual idea of how effective your retraction settings are. And from there, you can evaluate the model and adjust the retraction settings accordingly.

Overall, retraction is a supercritical element of the 3D printing process. If turned off, your prints will likely look hideous as they’ll be full of stringing and other forms of over-extrusion.

It’s a good idea to go into your slicer settings and, first, make sure that you enable retraction. Once it’s turned on, you should adjust some of your retraction settings if you’re having problems with stringing.

The two most important ones are the retraction distance setting and the retraction speed, which I suggest setting to 5 mm and 45 mm/s, respectively. I also strongly suggest activating the Z Hop When Retracted feature in your slicer program.

Finally, you might also want to check the Combing Mode and nozzle temperature settings as both also heavily affect the frequency of stringing on 3D printed models.

Related read:

• Best Ender 3 (Pro/V2/S1) Retraction Settings
• How To Fix Under-Extrusion

About The Author

Jackson O'Connell

How to Speed Up 3D Printing for Faster Prints: 9 Easy Tips

Mario De Lio

Last Updated:

March 11, 2024

Disclosure:  This post may contain affiliate links. We may receive compensation when you purchase via my links at no cost to you. See our  disclosure  for more information.

One of the most common challenges faced by 3D printing enthusiasts is the time it takes to complete a print. With some projects taking hours or even days to finish, everyone is looking for ways to increase the speed of 3D printing without compromising on quality.

There are several ways to speed up 3D printing without reducing print quality. Let’s look at some easy tips to 3D print faster, such as adjusting slicer settings, modifying infill patterns, and experimenting with nozzle sizes to help you create a 3D image more quickly.

Table of Contents

How to Speed Up 3D Printing

1. increase print speed in your slicer.

Increasing the print speed is one of the easiest ways to get faster print times. Print speed, typically measured in millimeters per second, dictates how fast the print head moves during extrusion.

It’s best to increase this speed gradually and run a test print to evaluate the impact on print quality. Faster print speeds often reduce the quality of your 3D model as faster speeds create more vibrations and don’t provide as much time for the filament to bond.

Remember that every printer has its limits. You can’t increase print speed indefinitely.

Different filaments also react differently to speed changes, so consider the material you use. For instance, increasing speed can sometimes lead to poor layer adhesion, reduced surface quality, and less accuracy in the print. To strike the right balance, you might want to experiment with varying speeds for different parts of your print, like opting for slower speeds for the outer walls and faster for the infill.

You can also adjust the acceleration and jerk settings, which control the speed at which the print head changes directions.

Tip: Raise the print temperature when you increase print speed to prevent under-extrusion issues. Higher print temperatures allow the filament to melt and extrude faster. I recommended a 5-15 °C temperature increase for every 5-10mm/s increase in print speed.

2. Increase Travel Speed

An often overlooked speed setting is the travel speed. The travel speed is how fast the print head moves when not extruding material. Think about gaps in your print or when you’re printing multiple items.

Increasing the travel speed reduces overall print times.

You’ll notice the most significant time savings when printing objects where the print head spends much time over open spaces. If you’re printing a solid object, such as a vase, this setting won’t impact print times.

The default setting in Cura is 150mm/s, but you can increase it with a 3D printer capable of faster speeds. 

Faster travel speeds also reduce stringing in your 3D prints, as there’s less time for the filament to ooze out of the nozzle during movements.

The biggest drawback is that faster travel speeds increase the chance of the hot end crashing into parts of your print.

Enable Z hop, which raises the nozzle during travel, preventing collisions with printed objects. You can also enable Combing, which adjusts the travel path to avoid collisions. We prefer Z hop over combing as the modified path is longer, increasing print times. In comparison, Z hop does not affect the print speed.

3. Increase Layer Height

Increasing the layer height is the best way to reduce print times. However, increasing the layer height reduces the print quality of your 3D model.

Layer height is often referred to as the print resolution .

Increasing layer height is particularly effective for larger, less detailed objects. However, it’s essential to be aware of the trade-off involved: a thicker layer height can reduce  the level of detail and smoothness of the print’s surface, making layer lines more visible.

You can increase the layer height to 80% of the nozzle diameter.

You can print with a standard 0.4mm nozzle with a maximum 0.32mm layer height . With a wider nozzle diameter of 0.6mm, you can print at a much larger layer height of 0.48 mm.

4. Use a Wider Nozzle

Using a wider nozzle diameter is an effective way to increase the speed of 3D printing. Wider nozzles allow for a higher filament extrusion rate and larger layer heights.

Most 3D printers have a 0.4 mm nozzle. However, you can upgrade to a larger 0.6mm or 0.8mm nozzle diameter to increase 3D printing speeds.

However, larger nozzle diameters reduce the level of detail in prints, making them less suitable for high-precision or intricately detailed objects.

When switching to a wider nozzle, adjustments in the slicing software, such as recalibrating the extrusion rate, layer height, and printing temperature, are necessary.

Wider nozzles are especially beneficial for larger prints where fine detail is not a priority. I often use a wide nozzle diameter when printing large cosplay props because I know they will be sanded and painted, so layer resolution isn’t necessary.

5. Decrease Infill Density

Decreasing the infill density of a 3D print is a strategic approach to significantly reducing print times. Infill density refers to the amount of material used to fill the inside of a print. Lowering the infill density reduces the amount of filament required .

You can choose an infill density between 0% and 100%. An 0% infill produces a hollow object that is quickest to 3D print, while an infill density of 100% creates a solid object.

When you decrease the infill density, less material is used to fill the interior of your print. This reduction means the printer has less material to extrude inside the object, directly decreasing the print time.

However, it’s essential to balance the infill density with the structural requirements of the print. Lower infill densities make the 3D printed object lighter and use less material, which is cost-effective but also makes the final object less sturdy and more prone to damage or breaking, especially under stress.

Here’s a general guideline for selecting the best infill density for your 3D print :

• Decorative prints (0-15%) : Ideal for lightweight miniatures, display models, and objects that don’t need much structural integrity.
• Standard prints (15-30%) : A good choice for objects requiring more strength but not needing to be solid or too heavy.
• Durable prints (30-50%) : Suitable for functional parts that undergo moderate repeated stress, where tensile strength and durability are important factors.
• Functional prints (50-100%) : Best for solid functional items and components that must withstand significant forces. Remember that a 100% infill might reduce flexibility in certain models.

Decreasing infill densities is best suited for objects where internal strength is not a primary concern, such as decorative items or parts that don’t bear a load.

6. Choose a Faster Infill Pattern

Changing the infill pattern is another technique to optimize print times in 3D printing. The infill pattern is the shape of the internal structure of a print.

Infill patterns vary in complexity and design. Different patterns impact the finished product’s printing speed and structural integrity.

Lines and zig-zag patterns are among the simplest and fastest to print . These patterns involve straightforward, continuous movements of the print head, allowing for a more efficient printing process with fewer stops and starts. These infill patterns can be printed quickly due to their simplicity and the reduced need for complex movements or retractions of the print head.

However, the simplicity of lines and zig-zags comes with a trade-off regarding structural support. These patterns are not as strong as more complex infill designs like grid, honeycomb, or triangular patterns. The straight-line nature of these infills can lead to weaknesses, especially under torsional or bending forces. Faster printing infill patterns are best for decorative items that don’t require structural strength.

A more intricate infill pattern might be necessary for objects that require more strength, albeit at the expense of longer print times.

7. Lower Wall Thickness

Decreasing the wall thickness in 3D printing, or shell thickness, is the number of solid layers forming the sides of a print, is a straightforward way to improve 3D printing speed.

When you reduce the wall thickness, there are fewer perimeter layers to lay down. The reduction in filament translates to faster 3d printing. 

However, lower wall thickness reduces a print’s strength and quality. Thinner walls are less robust, making the print more susceptible to damage under physical stress.

Additionally, with thinner walls, the infill pattern might be more visible, potentially affecting the print’s aesthetic appeal. 

8. Remove or Reduce Supports

Adjusting the support settings is a strategic way to reduce the time required to complete a 3D print. Supports are essential for printing overhangs and bridging gaps, but they can also add significantly to print time and material usage.

By optimizing your support material settings in the slicer program, you can minimize the amount of support used, thereby speeding up the printing process.

• Selective Support Placement: Instead of using the default setting, which often adds supports everywhere, opt for selective placement. You can selectively place supports where they are absolutely necessary, such as under extreme overhangs or large bridges. This method does take some skill, as you need to understand which parts of your print require support.
• Reducing Support Density: Decreasing the density of the support structures reduces print time as less filament is required. Higher-density supports are stronger but take longer to print and use more material.
• Using Support Patterns Efficiently: Choose support patterns that are quick to print and easy to remove. For instance, a zig-zag or line pattern can print faster and be less dense than a grid pattern, which helps reduce overall printing time.
• Adjusting Support Overhang Angle: Increase the overhang angle for support generation. By default, many slicers generate supports for overhangs greater than 45 degrees. If your material and printer settings allow, increasing this angle means less support material, speeding up the print. You can often get away with 60 degrees or more if your 3D printer is calibrated correctly. 

Optimizing support settings involves ensuring adequate support for overhangs and minimizing unnecessary support structures. This balance is critical to reducing both print time and material usage.

By selectively placing supports, adjusting their density and pattern, and fine-tuning overhang angles and distances, you can significantly speed up your 3D printing process while maintaining the integrity and appearance of your prints.

As a bonus, with less material, supports are easier to remove and have less of an impact on the surface of your print.

You can also use Cura’s tree supports or Prusa Slicer’s organic supports, which use less filament than traditional support structures.

9. Print Multiple Objects at Once

Printing multiple objects at once in 3D printing can lead to significant time savings, often reducing the total print time by up to 50%. This efficiency gain is achieved because the printer works on several prints simultaneously rather than completing them individually.

And that doesn’t include the time it takes to remove the previous print, preheat the hot end, and level the print bed between prints.

When you print multiple items together, the printer’s head moves from one object to the next in a single layer before advancing to the next layer. This process continues layer by layer until all objects are completed.

I’ve found the most significant time savings when printing on multi-color printers. For example, when I print on my Bambu Lab P1P , there’s a significant time delay between color changes. But when I print multiple objects at once, the printer prints one color before moving to the next, reducing the amount of color changes.

However, there are some considerations to keep in mind. Printing multiple objects simultaneously can increase the risk of print failures affecting all objects on the build plate. Additionally, if one object fails, it can potentially interfere with or damage the other models being printed.

Therefore, it’s essential to ensure the bed is properly leveled and the objects adequately spaced to allow smooth movement between the print head.

When printing multiple items, ensure no overlap between support structures or bed adhesion layers, like rafts, brims, and skirts.

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Ender 3 (V2, Pro, S1) Print Speed and How to Maximize It

Last updated on 25 Mar, 2024

The Creality Ender 3

According to manufacturer Creality, the Ender 3 print speed can reach an impressive 180 mm/s. But is it possible to successfully print at this high speed? If so, how?

Print speed is an important but often misunderstood metric in 3D printing. Specified in millimeters per second, it refers to the speed at which the printhead moves while printing filament, and it can be adjusted in your slicing software.

But just as you might crash your car if you “floor it” on a winding road, your prints are likely to fail if you print at your printer’s maximum print speed all the time. This is because print speed is limited not just by how fast the printhead can move along the X and Y axes, but also by how quickly and evenly the extruder can push out material and by how that material behaves once it is printed. In general, the faster you print, the more likely you are to suffer problems like poor layer adhesion, ringing (ghosting), or nozzle jams.

This article provides an overview of how to push the printing speed of the Creality Ender 3, one of the most popular entry-level FDM printers, while maintaining good print quality. According to Creality, the Ender 3 has a top speed of 180 mm/s. But can you actually print this fast, or is it equivalent to hitting the gas in a residential neighborhood? Let’s find out.

The Ender 3: Machine and Myth

The Creality Ender 3 remains — for better or worse — the 3D printer of choice for hobbyists and beginners. As of Spring 2024, the printer is still shifting over 2,000 units per month on Amazon US, more than double the next most popular machine, the Flashforge ADVENTURER 5M.

Of course, there are other affordable FDM printers out there. And Creality has built plenty of similarly priced printers with better specs than the original Ender 3, which is now six years old. So why do buyers keep choosing the original Ender 3 over “better” models like the Ender 3 S1 or Ender 3 Pro? Truth be told, the Ender 3 continues to dominate entry-level 3D printing precisely because it always has: its consistent popularity has created a very large user base, many of whom are happy to share advice on print settings and maintenance through online communities.

Another reason for the popularity for the Ender 3 is how average it is. It’s a great starter printer because it has standard hardware, runs on standard Marlin firmware, and doesn’t have any major quirks or nonstandard features. Great, therefore, for learning the basics. Unfortunately, this also means it also offers average printing results. In line with this, the Ender 3 is capable of average print speeds. According to Creality, the “normal” print speed for the Ender 3 is 30–60 mm/s. However, the company also claims the printer is capable of reaching a maximum print speed of up to 180 mm/s. As we can see, that is roughly in line with other entry-level FDM machines:

In the following sections we’ll look at how to adjust the printer’s hardware, firmware, and slicer settings to successfully print at somewhere close to 180 mm/s without creating a hot mess.

Print Speed and Its Limits

You can increase the print speed of a build by adjusting the print speed setting in your slicer (Cura, Simplify3D, etc.). However, setting a high value is no guarantee that your model will print successfully. When printing fast, the printer needs to be extruding enough material to keep up, and each layer of material needs to bond and then cool fast enough to prevent issues like poor adhesion or sagging.[1] In other words, we may need to take several steps before cranking up the print speed, and even then there’s no guarantee that a speedy print will result in a satisfactory printed object. (Strangely, some researchers have found that fast printing speeds can actually improve the tensile strength of printed parts,[2] but don't take that as your starting point.)

Note that print speed is not the same as printing time — i.e. how long it takes to finish a print. While print time is determined to some extent by the print speed, it is also affected by other factors like travel speed, layer height, and infill density. (Think about it like this: small parts can have a very short printing time even when printed at slow speeds, simply because they are small!) Here we are looking at ways to get your Ender 3 extruding and depositing material at a fast rate, not just ways to shorten print times.

Recommended reading: 3D print speed: What it is and why it matters

Slicer Settings

The most beginner-friendly way to speed up the Ender 3 is to tweak the settings in your chosen slicer, such as Cura. This doesn’t require any physical modification of the printer and is a good way to familiarize yourself with the Ender 3 and what it can do. Bear in mind that some slicer parameters are mutually dependent, so you’ll have to consider how changing one parameter will affect another.

While there are many settings that affect print speed, the two you should focus on are the default print speed and the acceleration. Note that the acceleration value will be relatively low by default, which means the specified "speed" is rarely reached. For an instant speed boost, crank up the acceleration and see what happens. 

In terms of the Ender 3’s hardware, there are two strategies for increasing print speed. One is to tweak and optimize the existing components; the other is to replace components with speed-friendly alternatives.

Maintenance

The simplest way to increase the speed capacity of the Ender 3 — albeit by very fine margins — is to perform general maintenance and calibration on the machine. This can include basic processes like bed leveling, cleaning the bed and moving parts, and cleaning the nozzle to ensure there are no blockages preventing fast material extrusion. While this won’t turn the Ender 3 into a Ferrari, it can slightly reduce the likelihood of speed-related issues like under-extrusion and ringing.

Recommended reading: Ender 3 Pro Bed Leveling: A Comprehensive Guide

Replacing the Extruder and Hot End

A much more effective way to speed up your Ender 3 is to replace the stock components with better ones. Some Ender 3 users have reported improved results by installing linear rails on their printer, which can improve the smoothness of the printer’s movements and reduce maintenance requirements. However, the main components to focus on for speed improvements are the hotend and extruder.

While the stock Ender 3 parts aren’t total junk, they won’t allow for ultrafast printing: many users have issues when approaching the 100 mm/s mark, as the hotend isn’t hot enough and the extruder doesn’t have adequate traction to move the filament along at rapid speeds. An E3D V6 all-metal hotend, on the other hand, is lightweight and offers better thermal properties than the stock component, enabling faster heating and cooling and reducing the time required for temperature changes during the printing process. Its optimized heat dissipation maintains stable temperature control, allowing for faster print speeds that won’t lead to failed prints.

Additionally, a new extruder like the Bondtech BMG, equipped with a dual-drive gear system, provides better filament grip and feeding performance. The dual-drive mechanism ensures consistent and reliable filament feed, preventing slippage even at higher speeds — something that isn’t really possible with the stock extruder. The improved grip allows for faster filament flow, which in turn allows for faster print speeds.

Overall, swapping out the stock Ender 3 hotend and extruder for a V6 hotend and BMG extruder (or equivalent) reduces the likelihood of various extrusion-related issues that can hinder print speeds. The V6 hotend's thermal performance minimizes the risk of clogs or jams, while the BMG extruder's reliable filament feeding and flexibility in handling different filament types ensure smooth and uninterrupted filament flow, even at higher speeds.

Material Selection

If your primary goal is fast printing, you’ll need to find a filament that is up to the task. That essentially means a rigid material that won’t get stuck in the extruder, but also one that doesn’t need intense cooling, which ultimately slows the process down. 

Though it has its limitations, ABS is a great 3D printing material for fast printing. It doesn’t easily get stuck in direct drive or Bowden extruders, and it cools down quickly, which makes parts less likely to warp or collapse mid-print. PLA is also a good material for printing quickly. In fact, of the three most common low-cost materials, only PETG should be avoided. (All soft materials like TPU should also be avoided as they cannot be extruded quickly.)

Some filament makers offer "high-speed" formulations of certain materials which have a higher melt flow index for faster extrusion.

Recommended reading: Comparison of PLA, ABS, and PETG Filaments for 3D Printing

Another bottleneck on the Ender 3’s maximum print speed is its standard firmware, which is a version of Marlin. While this firmware does the job, it lacks some complex features that can help achieve better printing results at high speeds.

Many Ender 3 users find they can achieve faster printing speeds by replacing the printer’s default Marlin firmware with Klipper firmware. Klipper provides advanced motion kinematics and additional tools that can help Ender 3 users get faster speeds out of their hardware, such as improved control over acceleration.

Though it requires the use of a microcontroller such as a Raspberry Pi, one of the main benefits of using Klipper is its input shaping ability. Input shaping is a process by which the printer anticipates and compensates for vibrations caused by its own movement. By doing so, it reduces the chances of creating ringing and other defects that commonly occur at high speeds.

Instructions for installing Klipper on a Raspberry Pi can be found here .

The Ender 3 is not a world-beating 3D printer, but it is capable of achieving good results at relatively fast speeds. Beginners who want to achieve faster prints should start by tweaking their slicer settings, focusing on increasing accelerating to a level that doesn't compromise print quality. However, more advanced users should consider updating the printer's firmware and swapping the stock extruder and hotend for speedier alternatives.

[1] Abeykoon C, Sri-Amphorn P, Fernando A. Optimization of fused deposition modeling parameters for improved PLA and ABS 3D printed structures . International Journal of Lightweight Materials and Manufacture. 2020 Sep 1;3(3):284-97.

[2] Ansari AA, Kamil M. Effect of print speed and extrusion temperature on properties of 3D printed PLA using fused deposition modeling process . Materials Today: Proceedings. 2021 Jan 1;45:5462-8.

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More by benedict o'neill.

Educated at King's College London and the University of Amsterdam, Benedict has been a freelance writer in the 3D printing industry since 2015. He is a contributing editor at Aniwaa and a senior writer at 3dpbm.

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Reducing the carbon footprint of additive manufacturing

Box-Behnken modeling to optimize the engineering response and the energy expenditure in material extrusion additive manufacturing of short carbon fiber reinforced polyamide 6

• ORIGINAL ARTICLE
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• Published: 20 April 2024

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• Markos Petousis 1 ,
• Mariza Spiridaki 1 ,
• Nikolaos Mountakis 1 ,
• Amalia Moutsopoulou 1 ,
• Emmanuel Maravelakis 2 &
• Nectarios Vidakis   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6100-932X 1  

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The field of production engineering is constantly attempting to be distinguished for promoting sustainability, energy efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and prudent material consumption. In this study, three control parameters (3D printing settings), namely nozzle temperature, travel speed, and layer height (L H ) are being investigated on polyamide 6/carbon fiber (15 wt%) tensile specimens. The aim is the optimum combination of energy efficiency and mechanical performance of the specimens. For the analysis of the results, the Box-Behnken design-of-experiment was applied along with the analysis of variance. The statistical analysis conducted based on the experimental results, indicated the importance of the L H control setting, as to affecting the mechanical strength. In particular, the best tensile strength value (σ B  = 83.52 MPa) came from the 0.1 mm L H . The same L H , whereas caused the highest energy consumption in 3D printing (E PC = 0.252 MJ) and printing time (P T = 2272 s). The lowest energy consumption (E PC = 0.036 MJ) and printing time (PT = 330 s) were found at 0.3 mm L H . Scanning electron microscopy was employed as a part of the manufactured specimens’ 3D printing quality evaluation, while Thermogravimetric analysis was also conducted. The modeling approach led to the formation of equations for the prediction of critical metrics related to energy consumption and the mechanical performance of composite parts built with the MEX 3D printing method. These equations proved their reliability through a confirmation run, which showed that they can safely be applied, within specific boundaries, in real-life applications.

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1 Introduction

Additive manufacturing (AM) is a technology with extended utilization in the industry. It is capable of producing not only complex but also lightweight shapes in a sufficient period of time, while also achieving to minimize the waste of material [ 1 , 2 , 3 ], by only using the required amount of it for the construction of the desired part, and its support structure in some cases [ 4 ]. AM provides sustainability benefits and aims to produce parts without consuming unnecessary amounts of energy or high machine emissions [ 3 , 5 ]. Among the fields, AM is applied to automotive [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ], aerospace [ 10 , 11 ], as well as biotechnology fields [ 12 , 13 , 14 ]. Research in the field often focuses on the effect of the 3D printing parameters on the performance of the parts [ 15 , 16 ], while modeling tools for the analysis of the experimental data are used [ 17 ].

Melt extrusion (MEX) is listed among the most used AM techniques, in polymeric and thermoplastic composite parts manufacturing. It is discerned for its cost efficiency, simplicity, and reduced waste of material [ 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ]. MEX has been utilized on a variety of pure [ 22 ] or matrix materials in composites [ 23 ], but mostly [ 24 ] on polylactic acid (PLA) [ 25 , 26 , 27 ] and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) [ 28 , 29 , 30 ] polymers. Among the others, investigations have utilized MEX with polyamides, such as polyamide 6 (PA6) [ 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ] or polyamide 12 (PA12) [ 32 , 35 , 36 ] in order to investigate their performance. Polyamides have been also investigated as matrix materials for the development of composites with multi-functional performance [ 37 ], even in medical applications [ 38 , 39 ].

HPPs have been a great influence on the manufacturing of many products [ 40 ]. They managed to take the place of metals in fields such as automotive, home appliances, spacecraft, rockets, or even defense systems [ 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 ] while maintaining a high energy efficiency as well as lightweight products in comparison to the metals [ 40 ]. It should be mentioned that HPPs have been favored by the advancement of synthetic chemistry regarding their properties, which became optimized, and their suitability for a wider variety of applications [ 40 ]. High-performance polyamides are mostly utilized in the automotive sector, electrical and electronic products, the film market, as well as industrial applications [ 45 ].

PA6, as a semicrystalline thermoplastic, is characterized by high strength, great chemical, and wear/abrasion resistance [ 46 ]. It is considered an engineering polymeric material suitable for utilization in cases such as automotive parts, electronic devices, or even packaging materials because of the great mechanical and physical properties it possesses [ 47 , 48 , 49 ]. It belongs to the engineering plastics possessing the crucial capability of load bearing, self-lubrication, chemical opposition, as well as versatility in various sectors [ 50 ]. There are studies based on high-performing polyamide composites for applications with regard to automotive, considering the improved impact failure mechanism they possess, their energy absorbance capability, and their mechanical properties [ 51 ]. The mechanical properties, surface quality, and energy efficiency of PA6 fabricated specimens have also been investigated [ 52 ]. In another research, the weldability of PA6 plates has been studied under three process parameters and concluded that weld tool pin geometry can affect mechanical strength importantly [ 53 ].

The polyamides present low density and have fine strength and heat stability, which leads them to be employed, among other industries, in the aircraft, aerospace, and automotive sectors, next to other HPPs, as mentioned above [ 54 , 55 , 56 ]. On the other hand, carbon fiber (CF) can enhance the properties of composites with its beneficial mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties [ 57 ]. Polyamide (PA)/CF composites are characterized to be lightweight, with high strength, and modulus of elasticity, wear and corrosion resistance, thermal and electrical conductivity, chemical inertness, and thermal stability [ 58 ]. They find applications in lightweight automotive parts and aerostructures [ 59 , 60 , 61 ], structural reinforcement of masonry in buildings [ 62 ], industrial helmets [ 63 ], and civil and structural engineering [ 64 , 65 ].

Carbon-based materials, such as carbon nanotubes and carbon black, have been investigated for their effect as additives in polyamides [ 66 , 67 ] or other popular polymers, such as the PLA [ 68 ], and ABS [ 69 ] in MEX 3D printing, showing a high potential not only as reinforcement agents but also in inducing multi-functional performance in some cases. 3D printed PA6/CF composites have been investigated as to the effect of microscopic voids on their mechanical performance [ 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ]. Information about their crystallization, mechanical, and thermal properties have been obtained and suggested that the addition of CF leads to the increase of tensile modulus and strength along with the decrease of elongations at break [ 49 ].

Regression models [ 70 ], the Taguchi design of experiment [ 71 ], and analysis of variance (ANOVA) [ 72 ] are often used as modeling tools for the analysis and optimization of experimental data in 3D printing in studies such as the ones mentioned above. For the experimental analysis of PA and PA-based composites, the Taguchi design [ 26 , 73 , 74 , 75 ], Box-Behnken design [ 76 , 77 , 78 , 79 ], and full factorial design [ 78 , 80 ] have been employed. There is even a study comparing all three experimental designs of them [ 81 ]. Box-Behnken design (BBD) versus full factorial design (FFD) has been studied to assess the ultimate tensile strength of PA12 MEX 3D printing specimens, by evaluating three 3D printing settings (input parameters), to be feasible (number of experiments to be conducted) to implement an FFD approach within a study [ 77 ].

As AM technology becomes more popular in the manufacturing sector, its sustainability becomes an important issue. The energy for the production of parts with the process is a critical parameter toward the sustainability of the AM technologies. Additionally, sustainability is a factor with increased interest lately worldwide. Herein, the required energy to produce composite parts with the material extrusion (MEX) AM process is assessed and reported. Quantifying the required energy provides information related to various fields. Apart from the sustainability, the cost for the production of a part with the AM method can be more accurately calculated. On the other hand, the mechanical performance of the 3D-printed parts is sensitive to the values of the parameters used with a small change in the parameters’ values leading to the production of parts with decreased mechanical properties. This research aimed to provide information on how each parameter affects both the mechanical performance and the energy consumption for the production of composite 3D printed parts. The aim of the research herein is not only to investigate and evaluate the mechanical responses of the PA6/CF fabricated specimens but also to result in developing a combination of suitable process control settings, by minimizing the consumed energy for the fabrication of the parts with MEX 3D printing and maximizing their mechanical performance in the tensile test. The optimum control parameters set should result in a MEX 3D printing procedure characterized by cost-effectiveness, as well as less energy and material consumption while also producing products with high mechanical strength. The BBD design of the experiment analyzed the experimental results. The experimental procedure and the modeling analysis that followed confirmed the hypothesis about the effect and the sensitivity of the 3D printing parameters on both the energy consumption and the mechanical performance of the parts. ANOVA was used to compile prediction models. Their efficiency was confirmed with a confirmation run. The provided prediction models are ready to be used in industrial environments for the calculation of the expected values of critical metrics related to energy consumption and the mechanical performance of composite parts built with the MEX 3D printing method.

2 Materials and methods

A filament of carbon polyamide (1.75 mm) purchased from NEEMA3D™ (the production is located in the Netherlands) was utilized. It is a PA6 material reinforced with 15 wt% carbon fiber. According to the information provided by the supplier, the tensile modulus is 10,500 MPa, the impact strength is 35 kJ/m 2 , the mold shrinkage is 0.3–0.5%, and the water absorption is < 0.3%. As for the properties of the filament, its printing temperature ranges between 255 and 265 °C, while its bed temperature ranges between 65 and 75 °C. The filament was fed in an Intamsys Funmat HT apparatus (from Intamsys Technology, located in Shanghai, China). Energy consumption was measured by utilizing a digital multimeter Rigol DM3058E (from RIGOL Technologies, in Beijing, China), while 3D printing time was recorded with the assistance of the stopwatch method [ 82 ]. Figure  1 shows the different stages of this study, namely consumption of energy monitoring, the process of 3D printing, evaluation of the samples’ morphological characteristics through SEM, tensile testing, and the formulation of the BBD under the three chosen control parameters.

The various stages of this investigation: (on the left) monitoring of energy consumption, procedure of 3D printing, evaluation of morphological characteristics, tensile testing, and (on the right) brief presentation of Box-Behnken design

Figure  2 b presents the chosen control settings set for the process of 3D printing, for the fabrication of type V tensile specimens, based on the ASTM D638 Standard. There were five samples fabricated for every combination of control parameters (which makes a total of 15 runs, five replicates each). The tensile testing was performed on an Imanda-MX2 tester (from Imanda Inc., in IL, USA) following the ASTM D638-02a standard. The procedure followed was applying a uniaxial force load on the samples for as long as it took for each individual specimen to fail the tensile testing. Stereoscope microscopy was employed for the morphological evaluation of the specimens, by utilizing an OZR5 stereoscope with an ODC 832 digital camera of 5MP (from KERN & SOHN GmbH, Germany) and an SEM (from JSM 6362LV, Jeol, Japan). For the capturing of SEM pictures, the specimens underwent covering with gold-coated (Au) and were into a high vacuum state of 20-kV acceleration voltage during observation. TGA analysis was conducted (Fig.  2 a) with the aim of detecting possible degradation or thermal instability while the 3D printing process of PA6/ CF was run by a TGA Perkin Elmer Diamond TG/TDA apparatus (from PerkinElmer, Inc., Waltham, MA, USA). The cycle of heating ranged between 32 and 390 °C, and the step of heating was 10 °C/min under an atmosphere of nitrogen. The TGA graph of pure PA6, given by the producer, is also presented in Fig.  2 a, with the aim of comparing it with PA6/CF 15 wt%. It can be observed that PA6/CF degrades at higher temperatures compared to pure PA6.

a  TGA plot (weight loss % versus temperature) of PA6/CF 15 wt% and pure PA6 given by the producer. b  Input parameters set for the 3D-P of PA6/CF 15 wt% specimens and geometry of the specimens based on ASTM D638 tensile test standard

2.1 Energy indexes

Three main components were utilized for the calculation of the total consumption and electric energy during the procedure of material extrusion AM. Those were the consumptions deriving from the startup as well as the shutdown of the machine and the consumption deriving from the productive 3D-P process. The following Eq. ( 1 ) was utilized for the estimation of the total energy consumption:

where E thermal energy consumption is calculated using the following Eq. ( 2 )

E motion represents the energy levels arising from the function of the 3D printers’ motors, and E auxiliary represents the energy consumption arising from the function of electronics as well as the rest fragments of the 3D printer, calculated by the equation below ( 3 ):

Generalizing the energy documentation, S PE (specific printing energy, required energy per mass produced) can be estimated through the equation below ( 4 ):

while S PP (specific printing power, required power per mass produced) can be estimated through Eq. ( 5 ):

E PC stands for the energy printing consumption which corresponds to the 3D printer (E total ), W S represents the actual value of weight characterizing every specimen, while P T stands for the printing time consumed so that every experimental run can be conducted.

2.2 DOE, ANOVA, and statistical analysis

Herein, BBD was utilized with the aim of forming a set of optimum input 3D-P settings as to σ B and E PC of the manufactured material extrusion 3D-P PA6/ CF specimens. The chosen input parameters were nozzle temperature, travel speed, and layer height. These were selected as they were considered the most important ones, based on the literature review carried out on energy consumption vs. mechanical performance of MEX 3D printed parts, presented above. Along with the analysis of the experimental results, main effect plots as well as interaction plots were created, contributing to finding the optimal set of settings. Regression analysis and prediction models were also formed and utilized for the creation of functions regarding the energy indicators of W S (part weight), P T (printing time), E PC (energy printing consumption), S PE (specific printing energy), S PP (specific printing power), and the mechanical performance indicators, i.e., σ B (tensile strength), E (tensile modulus of elasticity), and T t (tensile toughness). Additionally, two confirmation runs were performed with the aim of validating the prediction quadratic equations.

The ANOVA statistical technique is widely used for the analysis and interpretation of the experimental results while taking into consideration the ratio of each parameter. ANOVA highlights the importance of each parameter in solving the problem. The steps followed in ANOVA for the required calculations are cited below:

SS T (total sum of squares) was found through Ref [ 83 ]:

where N represents the total amount of cases of the orthogonal array, and Y i shows the experimental/ numerical result for the i th experiment,

SS T (total sum of the squared deviations) is calculated by summarizing SS e (sum of squared error) and SS P (sum of squared deviations due to every process parameter), so SS P was defined as [ 83 ]:

where P is one of the parameters, j represents the level number of P, t represents the repetition of each level of P, and SY j is the sum of the experimental results involving both P and j. SS e (sum of squares from the error parameters) is [ 83 ]:

The total degree of freedom equals D T = N − 1, and the degree of freedom for every tested parameter equals D P = N − 1. The variance of the parameter tested is V P = SS P /D P . The F -value for every design parameter is simply the ratio of the mean of squares deviations to the mean of the squared error F P = V P /V e . The percentage contribution ρ was calculated as [ 83 ]:

3.1 Morphological characterization and analysis of failure

Figure  3 presents stereoscopic images of the fractured surface belonging to one randomly chosen, out of each run’s five replicas, specimens of each run. It should be noted that runs 13, 14, and 15 have been repeated under the same conditions, as the Box-Behnken design proposes. It is also observable that there is a brittle structure in all of the samples, which indicates that the specimens were fractured without a remarkable deformation.

Stereoscopical images captured from the fractured surface of one random sample chosen from each of the fifteen runs, along with their corresponding 3D-P control settings

The runs selected for extended analysis were runs 1, 9, and 11. Out of the five replicas, one random specimen was chosen. Then their tensile strength to strain graphs were created and are herein presented in Fig.  4 a, b, and c, along with their corresponding printing parameters. It can be observed that the value of the T S printing parameter was chosen to be the same for all runs, while T N and L H values ranged, in order to have a better perspective as to the differences of the studied cases. In Fig.  4 a, b, and c, the tensile toughness as well as tensile strength values of each run correspondingly are included. There are also microscopic images of the specimens’ side surfaces, respectively, where it can be observed that run 11 (Fig.  4 c) presents a thicker sample in comparison to the other two runs. It should be highlighted that the tensile strength of run 11 (Fig.  4 c) is explicitly much lower than the other two runs’ (Fig.  4 b and c). Figure  4 d, e, and f show SEM pictures of the fracture surfaces belonging to the corresponding samples of Fig.  4 a, b, and c at a 27× magnification. Run 9 (Fig.  4 e) seems to present less porosity than runs 1 (Fig.  4 d) and 11 (Fig.  4 f).

Side surface SEM images, tensile strength to strain graphs, and the corresponding printing parameters of one random sample selected from run 1 ( a ), run 9 ( b ), and run 11 ( c ), along with SEM images of their fracture surface at 27× magnification: run 1 ( d ), run 9 ( e ), and run 11 ( f )

The same samples mentioned above are also shown in SEM images taken from their side surface at 150× magnification (Fig.  5 a, c, and e) and their fracture surface at 1000× magnification (Fig.  5 b, d, and f). The side surfaces present many voids, and the samples from runs 1 and 11 have a slightly more visible interlayer fusion than the sample from run 9. Porosity and voids are indeed very intense in all of the fracture images, especially in the case of runs 1 and 11. It should be noted that although the only different 3D printing parameter between runs 9 and 11 is the layer thickness, both the side and the fracture images show very different structures, and for instance, run 11 presents a smoother structure than run 9. The presence of the fibers is evident in the fracture surface images. The defects on the side surface indicate that the 3D printing parameters of the specific run were not optimum for the composite. Such voids and defects are expected to negatively affect the mechanical performance of these samples.

Side surface SEM images of one random sample selected from run 1 ( a ),  run 9 ( c ), and run 11 ( e ) at 150× magnification, along with their corresponding printing parameters and their fracture surface SEM images at a 1000× magnification, run 1 ( b ), run 9 ( d ), and run 11 ( f )

3.2 BBD presentation

Table  1 summarizes all input values regarding the three control settings corresponding to each of the fifteen runs, as well as their levels. The mean average values and standard deviations of W S , P T , E PC , and σ B for each run are also shown in Table  1 , while the respective values for E, T t , S PE , and S PP response parameters are presented in Table  2 . Additional appendix results can be found in Tables S5 , S6 , S7 , and S8 of the supplementary material.

3.3 Statistical analysis

There were four response parameters for which box plots were created, taking into consideration the aforementioned experimental results, namely printing time (P T ) (Fig.  6 a), specimen weight (W S ) (Fig.  6 b), tensile strength (σ B ) (Fig.  6 c), and energy printing consumption (E PC ) (Fig.  6 d). The box plots aim to highlight on which response parameter is found the most remarkable influence by each printing parameter.

Box plots presenting the metrics of the main response parameters as to the control settings (T N , T S , L H ): P T  ( a ), W S  ( b ), σ B  ( c ), and E PC ( d )

In the case of P T , values are found near three values for all control parameters, while on the contrary W S values appear to be scattered considering T N , T S , and L H . As for σ B , regarding T N and T S , the values are also scattered, but L H appears to have a great impact on it, as the values of σ B change importantly along with the L H fluctuations. E PC values are again gathered mostly around three or two values regarding T N , T S , and L H seem to have a reasonable impact on E PC . Main effect plots (MEPs) are followed ahead and discussed further.

Figure  7 presents MEPs of P T and W S (Fig.  7 a), σ B and E PC (Fig.  7 b), E and T t (Fig.  7 c), and S PE and S PP (Fig.  7 d) as to T N , T S , and L H . Layer height appears to have a great impact on the majority of the response parameters. It causes an increase in the weight of the specimen, while the printing time is drastically decreased. It also reduces the tensile strength while, at the same time, the printing energy consumption is lowered. This also happens to the tensile modulus of elasticity and tensile toughness. Specific printing energy was decreased under the influence of layer height increase.

Main effect plots from all of the response parameters as to the control parameters (T N , T S , L H ): P T and W S  ( a ), σ B and E PC  ( b ), E and T t  ( c ), S PE and S PP ( d )

Some other remarkable observations are that travel speed lowered printing time as well as specific printing energy and increased specific printing power. Overall, layer height was the control parameter affecting the response parameters the most. Interaction plots of all the input parameters as to the response parameters can be found in Fig. S1 of the supplementary material.

3.4 Analysis of regression results and analysis of variance

QRM of each response can be calculated by the following equation:

RQRM of every response can be found by the calculation:

where k is the response output (i.e., W S , P T , E PC , σ B , E, T t , S PE , S PP ), a is the constant value, b is the coefficients of the linear terms, c is the coefficients of the square terms, e is the error, and x i  is the three ( n  = 3) control parameters (i.e. T N , T S , L H ).

Tables  3 , 4 ,  5 , and 6 contain regression values as to the response parameters of W S , P T , E PC , and σ B , while the regression tables of the rest of the response parameters can be found in Tables S1 , S2 , S3 , and S4 of the supplementary information. Along with the tables, equations representing the predictive models formed as a function of T N , T S , and L H for every response parameter are cited (Eqs.  13 – 20 ).

The attention is attributed to the F , P , and R 2 values at all tables, as F and P values should be more than 4 and less than 0.05, respectively, and values of R 2 show the % of the accuracy of the model which is expected. All regression values, regarding the total amount of the parameters, were above 85% and the majority was higher than 90%, which indicates that the expected accuracy of the prediction models is remarkably high.

There were some more graphs created in conjunction with the regression data, in order to highlight the important parameters of this study. Figures  8  and  9  contain two types of graphs; one graph indicates statistically which parameters can influence the response parameters, and the other graph presents the experimental versus the predicted values regarding the response parameters. Figure  8 a includes the corresponding graphs of P T , where on the left it is shown that L H and T S are statistically important, and on the right, it is shown that the experimental and predicted values are importantly close or almost the same (including the confirmation runs). Figure  8 b has the graphs of W S , where on the left, it is shown that all three control parameters T N , L H , and T S are statistically important, and on the right, it is shown that some of the experimental and predicted values are close or almost the same, but some others diverge.

Graphs of statistical presentation for the % of influence control parameters have on response parameters (on the left) and predicted versus experimental results (on the right), for P T  ( a ) and for W S ( b )

Graphs of statistical presentation for the % of influence control parameters have on response parameters (on the left) and predicted versus experimental results (on the right), for σ B ( a ) and for E PC ( b ), along with SEM images from the confirmation runs’ structure and side surface correspondingly

In Fig.  9 a the corresponding graphs of σ B are presented. On the left, it is shown that L H and T S are statistically important, while on the right, it is shown that some of the experimental and predicted values (including those of the experimental runs’) are importantly close or almost the same. Figure  9 b presents the graphs of E PC , where on the left, it is shown that L H and T S are statistically important, and on the right, it is shown that some of the experimental and predicted values mostly coincide (including the confirmation runs). In Fig.  9 a and b, two SEM images of the confirmation run, one from the fracture surface (Fig.  9 a) and one from the side surface (Fig.  9 b), are included. Additional results regarding the corresponding graphs of E, T t , S PE , and S PP can be found in Fig. S2 and Fig. S3 of the supplementary information.

Figure  10 presents 3D surface plots of the σ B and E PC response parameters as to the T N , T S , and L H control parameters. Figure  10 a, b, and c show the graphs of σ B as to T N and T S , T N  and L H , and T S  and L H correspondingly. It can be observed that lower T N and T S impart higher tensile strength, while the opposite happens in the case of higher T N and T S . The effect of L H seems to be strong, as it is obvious that its decrease causes a rise of σ B , and the opposite, at both high and low T N or T S . Figure  10 d, e, and f depict the graphs of E PC as to T N and T S , T N and L H , and T S and L H , respectively. Low T S and L H seem to cause the increase of E PC and the opposite, at both high and low T N . In addition, a combination of low L H and T S increases the E PC and the opposite. More data regarding surface plots of P T and W S response parameters can be found in Fig. S4 of the supplementary information.

Surface graphs of σ B versus T N and T S ( a ), T N and L H ( b ), T S and L H ( c ), and E PC versus T N and T S ( d ), T N and L H ( e ), T S and L H ( f )

3.5 Confirmation experiments

Table  7 summarizes the input values regarding the three control settings corresponding to the two confirmation runs, as well as their levels. The mean average values and standard deviations for the confirmation runs of W S , P T , E PC , and σ B for each run are also shown in Table  7 , while the respective values for E, T t , S PE , and S PP response parameters are presented in Table  8 . Table  9 presents the validity results, comparing the predicted with the actual values of the response parameters in the confirmation runs. Overall, the % deviation between the predicted with the actual values is exceptionally low, showing that the prediction models in this study are expected to provide very accurate and reliable results. The only exception is the deviation of the E and especially the S PE values of run 17. Such deviations indicate that the prediction models operate within a specific range of values and probably the control values of run 17 are marginal for the capacity of the prediction models of these two response metrics. The analytic results of the experimental course of the confirmation runs are presented in the supplementary information provided.

4 Discussion

This study aimed to achieve both increased mechanical properties and minimized energy printing consumption when 3D printing PA6/CF 15 wt% parts with the MEX process. There were three (3) generic 3D printing control parameters investigated, namely T N , T S , and L H , and eight (8) response parameters, namely W S , P T , E PC , σ B , E, T t , S PE , and S PP . The 3D-P specimens went through an experimental procedure, and their results underwent analysis and evaluation according to the Box-Behnken design of experiments.

The analysis suggested that the parameter having the most important influence on the mechanical behavior of the 3D-P specimens was L H , which, to the authors’ best knowledge, has not been investigated yet in the literature for the specific composites in the MEX process. Tensile strength and 3D printing energy consumption were only some of the response parameters considerably affected by L H . Additionally, 3D printing time and specimens’ weight were also much affected, as well as tensile toughness and tensile modulus of elasticity. The tensile strength ranged between 42.59 and 83.52 MPa (about 100% difference), while the 3D printing energy consumption managed to reach the lowest value of 0.036 MJ (with the highest one being also 0.19 MJ, 5.2 times more). Such differences show the importance of selecting proper 3D printing settings, as they could have a quite large effect on the performance of the process and the parts produced. Such differences also justify the need for such an analysis as the one conducted in the study, as it was found that both the sustainability of the process and the mechanical performance of the parts could be highly affected.

As the L H increased, and so did the weight of specimens, the required 3D printing time was found to be reduced, along with the required 3D printing energy and specific printing energy, which reached the lowest values of 330 s, 0.036 MJ, and 0.018 MJ/ g, respectively, at the highest L H of 0.3 mm acting beneficially. However, the same value of L H resulted in the lowest tensile strength of 42.59 MPa, tensile modulus of elasticity of 197.77 MPa, and tensile toughness of 4.57 MJ/ m 3 .

On the other hand, the lowest value set for the L H equal to 0.1 mm had the exact opposite influence on all of the aforementioned response parameters. Although the 3D printing time was increased at 2272 s, the 3D printing energy at 0.252 MJ, and specific printing energy at 0.126 MJ/ g, the lower L H acted beneficial for the tensile strength which reached 83.52 MPa, tensile modulus of elasticity 427.42 MPa, and tensile toughness 11.96 MJ/ m 3 . It should be mentioned that the weight of specimens was also reduced.

The rest of the control settings (T N and T S ) did not have such a remarkable impact on the response parameters as the L T had. T N caused an increase in the weight of the specimen, as it got higher, while the rest of the response parameters were not much affected. On the other hand, T S influenced a few more response parameters, such as the 3D printing time, which was reduced the higher T S was, as well as the tensile strength and specific printing energy, which were slightly reduced by its increase. Additionally, the specific 3D printing power became higher with the rise of T S . Studies on energy consumption vs. mechanical performance in the 3D printing of parts with the MEX process from different polymeric materials (PLA [ 27 ] and ABS [ 30 ]) agree with the findings of the current research. They have also reported that the travel speed and the layer height are the 3D printing settings mostly affecting both the energy consumption and the mechanical performance of the 3D printed parts.

There was not a set of parameters that combined both excellent mechanical strength and minimized energy consumption. Studies found in the available literature have investigated the effect of CF reinforcing PA6 and showed that it provides excellent mechanical properties and can improve both tensile modulus by 60% and tensile strength by about 50% [ 49 ]. In [ 84 ] investigation, it was proved numerically and experimentally that the rectangle infill pattern with 40% infil density achieved the lowest distortions.

Further analysis was conducted through the examination of SEM images captured from the specimens’ fracture and side surfaces at different magnifications. It should be noted that those SEM images have indicated the existence of reinforced short carbon fibers appearing in the form of grayish cylinders (Fig.  5 b and f). This has also been reported in other studies in the case of PLA/CF [ 85 ], short CF-reinforced PA composites [ 86 , 87 ], and CF-reinforced PA6 composites [ 88 ].

In this study, it was also observed through the combination of SEM images and experimental results that the sample from run 9 (Fig.  5 d), which presented the least porosity, had the highest tensile strength. Runs 1 and 11 indicated more porosity, and their tensile strength was found to be lower, which also happened in the case of short CF-reinforced PC polymer matrix composite material in another study [ 89 ].

Overall, the constitution of the optimal set of control settings combining both the greatest energy efficiency and mechanical strength was not achieved. Yet an equanimous set of control settings could be derived from this study, as there are parameters that can level off the various influences on each aspect. Moreover, it should be mentioned that the created equations were proved reliable through the calculation of factors with the assistance of ANOVA, as well as the confirmation runs conducted so that they could be considered reliable. This indicates the suitability of the Box-Behnken method for the analysis of the experimental data in this specific study.

5 Conclusions

Herein, the optimal set of control settings is being researched with the challenge of manufacturing parts both energy efficient and mechanically strong, out of PA6/CF 15 wt% composite and through MEX 3D-P. The energy consumption was measured as the specimens were being printed, which then underwent tensile testing coherent with the ASTM D638 standard. Subsequently, the Box-Behnken design was utilized for the examination and analysis of the control settings and how they interact with each other. In addition, there were prediction models created for the total amount of the metrics along with the conduction of two confirmation runs, in order to verify the reliability of the model.

There was not a pair of parameters’ values that could achieve both having the lowest energy consumption and the highest mechanical strength. This event compels the need to choose the most desired aspect depending on the current requirements of the application. The only case where the tensile strength presented a medium value and the energy consumption was considerably low, was when a higher travel speed was applied. The most influencing control parameter was the layer height which was proved to affect all of the response parameters. The rest of the settings only had a small effect on the performance of the samples. Further investigation in the future could include the examination of a different set of input and control parameters in order to achieve the optimization of energy efficiency and great mechanical performance of the desired 3D printed parts simultaneously. Additional mechanical tests can be carried out and the range of the control parameter levels can be broadened.

Data availability

The raw/processed data required to reproduce these findings cannot be shared at this time due to technical or time limitations.

Abbreviations

Three-dimensional printing

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene

Additive manufacturing

Analysis of variance

• Box-Behnken design
• Carbon fiber

Design of experiment

Degree of freedom for the tested parameter

Total degree of freedom

Tensile modulus of elasticity

Energy printing consumption

Full factorial design

F-value for parameter

High-performance polymer

Layer height

Main effect plot

Melt extrusion

Polyamide 12

• Polyamide 6

Polycarbonate

Polylactic acid

Printing time

Quadratic regression model

Reduced quadratic regression model

Scanning electron microscopy

Specific printing energy

Specific printing power

The sum of squared errors

The sum of squared deviations

Total sum of squares

Taguchi design

Thermogravimetric analysis

Nozzle temperature

Travel speed

Tensile toughness

Ultimate tensile strength

Variance of error

Variance of parameter

Specimen weight

Percentage contribution of each parameter

Tensile strength

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Aleka Manousaki from the Institute of Electronic Structure and Laser of the Foundation for Research and Technology, Hellas (IESL-FORTH), for taking the SEM images presented in this work.

Open access funding provided by HEAL-Link Greece.

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Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hellenic Mediterranean University, Heraklion, 71410, Greece

Markos Petousis, Mariza Spiridaki, Nikolaos Mountakis, Amalia Moutsopoulou & Nectarios Vidakis

Department of Electronic Engineering, Hellenic Mediterranean University, Chania, 73133, Greece

Emmanuel Maravelakis

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Markos Petousis: writing—review, and editing; Mariza Spiridaki: writing—original draft preparation, investigation; Nikolaos Mountakis: data curation, visualization; Amalia Moutsopoulou: investigation, formal analysis; Emmanuel Maravelakis: formal analysis, validation; Nectarios Vidakis: conceptualization, methodology, resources, supervision, project administration. The manuscript was written with the contributions of all authors. All authors have approved the final version of the manuscript.

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Petousis, M., Spiridaki, M., Mountakis, N. et al. Box-Behnken modeling to optimize the engineering response and the energy expenditure in material extrusion additive manufacturing of short carbon fiber reinforced polyamide 6. Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-024-13617-5

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Received : 05 October 2023

Accepted : 09 April 2024

Published : 20 April 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-024-13617-5

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